My AlMoSt ChIldLiKe IdEaLiStIc BuLlShIt MaNiFeSto

Write an essay comparing and contrasting the advantages and disadvantages for an animal able to distinguish self from non-self, using named examples

2011-05-19T23:01:00.003+08:00

The ability to distinguish self from non-self or non-self from self is contentiously two mutually contradictory strategies and incompatible outcomes. To emphasize one is to demean the other. Yet paradoxically, the social evolution of eusocial insects to divide their societies into specialized reproductive and non-reproductive castes based on recognition system form the basis of their ecological success.1 This essay examines the adaptability of the ant species to discern self from non-self, taking the stand that while fraught with disadvantages, does confer an overall selective advantage. A four-pronged approach of reinforcement, enhancement, enrichment and re-creation will be used to complement the ant species to survive, grow and expand.

The ant species comprises of individuals living in a tightly integrated hierarchical colony, in which inter-individual conflict for reproductive privilege is diminished and the worker caste is maximized for colony efficiency in an inter-colony competition.2 The integrity of the colony is maintained by the ability to distinguish colony-mates (self) from foreign colony-mates (non-self) as well as to distinguish the function of one caste from another.3-4 Therefore, the inclusiveness of selfhood may vary within the context: it may refer to the individual, the caste or the species4.

The reinforcement of the integrity of the ant’s colony involves the use of a range of recognition systems such as chemical cues, specific learned odour and sensory modalities within the colony which control the activities of each ant to expedite.4 They play a crucial role in the social recognition evolution of ants known as kin recognition. This ensures that the benefits of altruism flow to those who share the altruist’s genes, thus preventing random fusion, parasitism, or dissolution of the colony.4 Nonetheless, these recognition systems could undergo a recognition error as it varies substantially across taxa, and occasionally within species.4 For example, the Australian meat ant (Iridomyrmex Purpureus) species constituting of vast colonies, with multiple queens or with heterogeneous microhabitat may have a mixed colony odour, therefore potentially creating confusion.5 This confusion could incur fitness cost in terms of energy expenditure and permitting competitive cost of helping a non-kin.5 Distinctively, humans are the only known species in which cooperation of genetically unrelated individuals exists5. This uniqueness of human altruism confirms our evolutionary success as a species. Similarly, the ant’s capability to display nepotism towards kin provides an immediate potential advantage. Nevertheless, research has shown that agonistic behaviour could be a double-edged sword that might turn into a self-inflicting trajectory decimation if the recognition system of the ants is compromise.5-6

The ant species often fight against other species, both intra and interspecifically.6 Although aggressive behaviour towards competitor is necessary, aggression can be costly in terms of energy spent, time lost and possible injury and death. Consequently, the ant species display two sides: one, the underground ants (Lasius Austriacus) show less hostility towards the neighbor colony than a distant colony and in contrast the weaver ants (Genus Oecophylla) responds more aggressively to neighboring colonies than the distant colonies.7 This reveals that different species of ants’ aptitude to perceive self from non-self is often ambiguous where optimal levels of aggression towards a competitor varies with the context of the interaction.7-8 This may be a disadvantage as the colony’s integrity may be compromised due to an ineffective individuals’ liability. Despite that, the colony is often well guarded because the transmission of self genes is maximized when the dilution of self is prevented hence, aggression normally occurs. 7 Yet, the shift in response of some ant species to be less aggressive prove to be the first stage of establishing peace but does not necessarily imply a lack of recognition. There may be circumstances where attacking an intruder is not worth the cost, particularly if it involves death. The lack of antagonism may also save resources, which can be invested in colony growth and reproduction, thus increasing colony fitness.7,9 The enhancement of self from non-self provides the ant species to adapt advantageous recognition flows depending on the context of interaction.

The ant’s caste system enriches individuals because it enables them to know their respective functions of one caste (self) to another (non-self). The sterile female workers exclusively lay down their lives in subservience to the queen.9-10 Yet, this occurrence represents an evolutionary enigma. The production of sterile offspring would seem to be a disadvantage. This paradox of having sterile forms prove to be a natural selective advantage at a colony level whereby workers could lead to the rapid growth and reproduction by helping their parental nest.9
Usually in a colony, the numbers of worker caste outweigh the rest; thus it could be a disadvantage especially for small colony species as it would tie down a substantial amount of resources.9 As such, worker caste altruistically restrict their reproduction to avoid overpopulation and starvation of the colony. The traits evolved due to the beneficial survival of their species to reproduce even at the cost of their reproductive success. Therefore, the shared genes can spread and increase one’s ‘Inclusive Fitness’.10-11 Correspondingly, the drones ants (males) and soldiers ants (females) too know their functions which is to mate with the queen12 and protect the colony13 respectively. These three castes are merely a tag team where multiple individuals, each performing different tasks, concurrently act to achieve the desired outcome that allows maximum advantage. With that, all three castes display altruistic behaviour whereby their collective purpose is underscored by their selfless sacrifice for the greater good of the colony via a “veil of ignorance” cloaking colony identity, to behave inclusively to the colony’s advantage.14

In the re-creation of a new ant’s generation, copulation is pivotal for sexual selection.15 The ant polyandrous species like the leafcutter ants (Atta Colombica) have shown sexually antagonistic coevolution of distinguishing self from non-self by means of their seminal fluids.15 This act displays selfish behaviour where the exposed seminal fluid of one individual (self) to the other (non-self) has proven to be detrimental, thus shows that individual is protecting their own self genes for propagation. 15 This act is similar to semen displacement as a sperm competition strategy in humans.16 The pheidole kingi ants show extreme phenotypic plasticity.17 Their female ant larvae are initially pluripotent such that they are able to develop into any forms and castes.17 The “decisions” that determine the individual's developmental pathway are influenced by quantity of the larval food, chemical cues and pheromones that reflect the social conditions of the nest. For instance, if there are many soldiers, chemicals produced by the soldiers will suppress the development of more soldiers.17 This negative developmental feedback loop ensures that appropriate numbers of different caste members are produced.17 As such, the chemical cues within the colony promotes the instinct of distinguish self from non-self within the species and affects the developmental decision of their larvae, depending on the need of the colony. Parasitic ants (Solenopsis daguerrei) habitually live in the nests of fire ants (Solenopsis Invicta).18 After usurping the host’s queen, the parasitic queen attaches herself to the fire ant queen and diverts resources from her.18 Consequently, the fire ant workers care for the imposter queen and her brood.18 This parasitic behaviour avoids all significant effort in the upbringing of her brood, predation and in turn personal growth yet, with no benefit to the host.18 The above examples illustrate that the re-creation of a new generation are self-strengthening strategies which has evolved to bring out immediate advantages.

Conclusively, the ants’ ability to discern self from non-self provides the first step towards the evolution of a remarkable functioning social system. Although this ability presents both strengths and weaknesses of the strategies and foreshadows its inherent outcomes, it can be succinctly summed up as a calculated evolutionary gamble. It provides an edge for the ant species that far outweighs the risks arising from a propensity of its species. As such, in this game of evolutionary roulette, the odds are stacked neatly complementing the ant species as a superorganism to survive, grow and expand.

REFERENCES
1.Reeve HK, Holldobler B. The emergence of a superorganism though intergroup competition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104(23): 9736-9740; 2007.
2.Holldobler B, Wilson EO. The superorganism: the beauty, elegance, and strangeness of insect societies. New York: Norton; 2009.
3.Sudd JH, Nigel RF. The behavioural ecology of ants. Glasgow: Blackie; New York: Chapman and Hall; 1987.
4.Tsutsui ND. Scents of self: The expression component of self/non-self recognition systems. Annales Zoologici Fernnici. 2004 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 41:713-727. Available from http://nature.berkeley.edu/tsutsuilab/Tsutsui_2004_AnZF.pdf
5.Reeve HK. The evolution of conspecific acceptance thresholds. The American Naturalist. 1989 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 133:407-435. Available from: JSTOR.
6.Brandt M , van Wilgenburg E , Sulc R , Shea KJ , Tsutsui ND. The scent of supercolonies: the discovery, synthesis and behavioural verification of ant colony recognition cues. BMC biology. 2009 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 7:71. Available from BioMed central.
7.Steiner FM, Schlick-Steiner BC, Moder K, Stauffer C, Arthofer W, Buschinger A, Espadaler X, Christian E, Einfinger K, Lorbeer E, Schafellner C, Ayasse M , Crozier RH. Abandoning aggression but maintaining self-nonself discrimination as a first stage in ant supercolony formation. Current biology. 2007 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 17(21):1903-7. Available from: ScienceDirect.
8.Tanner C, Aadler F. To fight or not to fight: context-dependent interspecific aggression in competing. Animal Behaviour. 2009 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 77(2):297-305. Available from: ScienceDirect.
9.Fjerdingstad EJ, Crozier RH. The evolution of worker caste diversity in social insects. The American Naturalist. 2006 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 167(3):390-400. Available from: JSTOR.
10.Hamilton WD. The evolution of altruistic behaviour. The American naturalist. 1963 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 97:354-356.
11.Suarez AV, Holway DA, Tsutsui ND. Genetics and Behavior of a Colonizing species: The Invasive Argentine Ant. The American Naturalist. 2008 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 172(1): 72-84. Available from: JSTOR.
12.Wilson EO. The insect societies. Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1971.
13.Holldobler B, Wilson EO. The superorganism: the beauty, elegance, and strangeness of insect societies. New York: Norton; 2009.
14.Queller DC, Strassmann JE. The Many Selves of Social Insects Science. 2002 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 296(5566):311-313. Available from: JSTOR.
15.Boer D, Susanne PA, Boris B, Boomsma JJ. Seminal fluid mediates ejaculate competition in social insects. 2010 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 327(5972):1506-1509. Available from: http://www.sciencemag.org.ezproxy.library.uwa.edu.au/content/327/5972/1506.full
16.Shackelford, Todd K, Pound N, Goetz AT. Psychological and physiological adaptations to sperm competition in Humans. General Psychology. 2005 [cited 2011 Mar 28]; 9(3):228-248.
17.Greene EP. Castes in Social Insects, Wing Polyphenism, Phenotypic Plasticity in Amphibian Larvae, Horned Beetles. Development and ecology [Online]. [Cited 2011 Mar 28]. Available from: http://science.jrank.org/pages/48394/Development-Ecology.html
18.Garcia J. United States Department of Agriculture. Parasitic ants may debilitate fire ants. 2000 [Cited 2011 March 28].Agriculture research service publications. Available from: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2000/001211.htm

Taishō “Democracy”

2011-02-21T14:35:00.002+08:00

The prospect of democracy in Japan was rekindled in what was known as Taishō “Democracy”, a contentious fact that is complex and difficult to rationalize. In the parochial sense, Taishō democracy coincided with the reign of Emperor Yoshihito which began in 1912 and lasted until 1926. Some scholars, for example Takayoshi (1966) asserts that the causes of the fluctuations of the spirit of democracy could be extended, going further back to 1905 and up to 1932 . In the 1920s, Japan moved towards democratic developments, yet in the 1930s democracy seems to halt and militaristic aspects emerged. The views presented in this essay will have a Western impact and Japanese response as well as Japan-centered approaches as proposed by Cohen (2003) in terms of political, economic, military, social and psychological dynamics . These dynamics will then be correlated as to why Taishō trend towards democracy failed to last.

To begin with, the political dynamic as pointed by Duus (1976) during the Taishō era created a power vacuum known as “Taishō political change” which accelerated the failure of democracy . The ruling group called Jushin that replaced the Meiji oligarchs as statesmen by the end of the 1st World War created turmoil of political struggles. Besides that, the death of the Meiji Emperor in 1912 meant a disappearance figure of democratic rule . The monarch was incapable of participating in the direction of his father, and in 1921 he had to relinquish even his ceremonial roles to his son, Hirohito. In addition, Taishō health prompted the shift of political power from a centralized rule to the Diet of Japan and the party system. These democratic apparatus proved to be handy mechanisms for the balancing of political power. Bureaucrats and military officers became the main heirs of the Genrō, but lacking the unchallenged authority of the predecessors thus they found it is necessary to seek support through political coalition of the Diet. Business cliques known by the pejorative name of zaibatsu, found the Diet a convenient bargaining ground with the bureaucracy, while the parties were for them an effective tool for winning political power through the judicious use of financial aid. Furthermore, important oligarchs such as Itō Hirobumi, who drafted the constitution and 4 times premier has been assassinated by a Korean in 1909. Yamagata Aritomo, known as the Father of the Army and twice premier died in 1922 . In 1924, only one of the Meiji oligarch remained, Saionji Kimmochi, a court noble and least typical member of the oligarchs . Nepotism, favourism and corruption could be rampant amidst such struggle. It must be understood that no one group that replaced the oligarchs had the prestige or power, and on the whole they lacked the common background and singleness of purpose in promoting and establishing democracy.

Another basic flaw of the Japanese political system could be traced back to the Meiji period whereby it was deliberately factionalize and was carefully preserved by the ruling groups of the 1920s until it contributed to their demise in the 1930s. In addition, the divine supremacy of the emperor was exploited which took precedence over all laws, which hasten the end of democracy. It was the Meiji oligarchs who came into power championing the right of emperor to rule fostered this archaic tradition. This in turn gave the men who surrounded the emperor outstanding authority over the people than they could have achieved otherwise. Most of whom who manipulate this right were the pro-nationalists and conservative militarist whom later contributed greatly to the pro-war politics. Shinto as a state religion further centralizes the power of the emperor and his imperial lineage. Japanese was practically indoctrinated with fanatical devotion to the emperor and even extended as a blind submission in all statements which secured the emperor the unquestioning loyalty and obedience of the people. These three nativist systems which were implemented by the oligarchs consequently permitted a radical sort of expression by members of the obsessed emperor-centric concept as they were crouched in terms of devotion to the emperor . I believe that these systems proved to be a contributing factor that stifled the growth of democracy as whoever challenged the validity of the emperor will be forcefully and callously suppressed.

After the 1st World War, post-war ferment such as the Rice Riots in 1918 and 2388 labor disputes in 1919 reflected an unprecedented social and intellectual upheaval. These created a rift between the city and country side which complicate Japan in the 20th Century. As stated by Sims (1991), the year 1925 in which universal male suffrage was passed through the General Election law, the Diet too passed a Peace Preservation law . Collectively, the law was designed to suppress political dissent. I interprets this as against democratic decree as it limits the rights of free speech and political actions. The government instilled a fear mongering technique to stamp out “dangerous thought” especially against communism which was justified in the attempt assassination of Hirohito during the Toranomon incident in 1923. The great Kanto Earthquake further escalated the unhappiness of the Japanese towards the government in rendering help. According to Totten (1965), by 1926 Japan Communist party had been forced underground, by 1929 the party leadership had been virtually destroyed and by 1933 the party had largely disintegrated . Hence, the fear of Communism was just a motive to invoke political terror. I personally elucidated this act was using the vague and subjective concept of kokutai in attempting to blend politics and ethnics, but the result was not encouraging as any political opposition or ideology could be branded as “altering the kokutai.” Special police called the Shokko was established as a thought-controlled police to investigate political groups that might threaten Emperor-centered social order . A weak emperor at the apex indicates that the government could carte blanche to outlaw any form of dissent towards the authority in general and the emperor in particular. Although, Japan did advocated imperial democracy called minpon shugi and rejecting Western democracy minshu shugi as suggested by Sakuzo Yoshino, Japanese nationalism grew and questions arose whether the kokutai emperor should be limited with democratic rule .

Parliamentary leaders made a blunder by failing to see that the reactionary pro-nationalists and conservative militarists presented the most immediate threat to their continued democratic rule. These groups turned the table on the civil government by claiming that they not the government represented the true imperial “voice”. The claim in the case of the army had certain validity as they are appointees of the emperor, enjoying a status of above and beyond the civil government and therefore equally qualified to speak for him. These groups practically profited from this break from the authority and abused tacit army approval; even extend by claiming imperial sanctions for their personal views and deeds. The acts of aggression abroad, acts of disobedience at home, political terror and open munity were all justified as being in accord with the true Imperial will. This misrepresented views brought about a social divergence during the Taishō era that showed that Japan is indeed turning into a militarized rule amidst such anarchy. Confronted with the back lashed of their own policy, parliamentarians failed to take immediate and drastic measures or even to stand firm and united amidst diversity. Instead, they all but openly admitted the autocracy by remaining silence and by compromising. Even though the liberal elements in the urban populations were dismayed, they were too weak politically and perhaps timorous to fight back. In contrast, the general rural and small-town populations accepted these acts of supposed devotion to the emperor at their face value and created an atmosphere so sympathetic to the extremists that such offenders were usually given absurdly light punishments. The psychological dynamics was influence upon the notion of a weak emperorship, loyalty and manipulation which muffled the trend toward democratic rule.

Even though i did mentioned that the concept of emperor-centric played an important role in halting democracy, the militarists could not have exploited if the armed forces had not in practice enjoyed considerable independence of public control and autonomy within the government. Scalapino (1953) argues that the Diet control over the cabinet was never fully established even in the 1920s, as the Diet never won full control over the state treasury . This showed that although the military did not dare to do away with the Diet and constitution entirely, because in theory it had been a gift the emperor, but the Diet was made meaningless and powerless in most part of the decision making towards a democratic Japan. The armed forces maintained a considerable influence and independent of the Cabinet by insisting that the Defense Minister be active military officers and therefore subject to military discipline and available for service in the cabinet only with military approval. This ruling was first made in 1895 and given imperial sanction in 1900, which permitted the armed forces to dissolve cabinets, or prevent unfavorable leaders from taking the premiership simply by refusing to let them accept portfolios in the government. This indicated that there are growing divergence of opinion and direction between the military and the civil government as early as 1912 to 1914. Duus (1968) commented that although this ruling was subsequently dropped, it was revived in the 1930s when it proved to be a valuable asset to the military in their bid for power. This proved that the military had not only established independence from the civil government but also won a virtual veto power over the cabinet that paved the way for any action the army wished to take.

With the inception of the Peace Preservation law and political manipulations by the military, it indirectly crafted Japan into being a modern totalitarian state. I infer that it was not merely an outgrowth of Japan’s feudalistic past but was equally a result of the modern economic and political policies. Modern communications as well as modern techniques of political and economic organizations had given the centralized authority of the 1920s far greater control over the lives of the Japanese than any Emperor, Shogun or Daimyo had ever exercised. Essential education for both male and female, electronic and advertising Medias, and obligatory military service had given those in power a holistic control over the hearts and minds of the people than they could dream of . As such, these apparatus evoked and manipulated the personality centered of the Japanese in controlling how they think and feel through the concept of nationalism.

Throughout the 1920s, Japanese leaders advocated colonial expansion which was inspired by Western-style imperialism. The policy of fukoku kyohei was still embedded in certain government officials. I believe that the outward expression of militarism, expansionism and imperialism were not part of the oligarchs’ plan through the handling of Saigo Takamori’s recommendation to invade Korea in 1873. Early leaning towards the military can be seen in the Conscription law of 1873 for self defense. The expansionist ideal was expressed when Baron General Tanaka Giichi intervened in the Chinese Civil war in 1928 . The turning point between the liberal 1920s and the reactionary 1930s came in 1931, when military forces without the approval or knowledge of the civil government started their own war in territorial aggrandizement. Japanese embarked on the conquest of Manchuria on the flimsy pretext that Chinese troops had tried to blow up the Japanese railway . By 1932, Manchuria was made into a puppet state and renamed Manchukuo headed by Puyi under military auspices. Western powers refuse to give diplomatic recognition to Manchukuo and the League of Nations condemned Japan as an aggressor . Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933. Discontented from abroad and fuelled with Japanese nationalism bolstered commitment to continental expansion and created an anti-Western mood. Unfurling the banner of Pan-Asianism, committed to defend the region against political and military interference from outside due to Japan impaired sovereignty. The consequence of this was the growth of an exaggerated form of nationalism; the Japanese quickly learned the usefulness of armed might and began to emphasize military preparedness. Since the leaders of the democratic movement were highly nationalistic, they were willing to support the principle of a strong militarized state. I guess history certainty repeated itself by asserting nationalism to arouse the nation in rejecting democracy and accepting military advancements.

The people as a whole accepted this act of unauthorized and certainly unjustified warfare with whole-hearted admiration. Instead of denouncing the militarist for acting against the will of the government and the emperor, the government happily accepted this expansion of the national domain and attempted to justify the acts of the military before a critical world view. The Japanese government maintained that there had been no war and called the whole conquest a mere “Incident.” In addition, Japanese validated that they are merely liberating Manchuria from Chinese rule by reinstating Emperor Puyi. Although i did stressed that that the Taishō emperor was weak in power, authority and healthy, it is possible that he was manipulated by the military. With the end of the Tsar rule of Russia due to the Bolshevik revolution in 1917, expansionism and military conquest was necessary to check the influence of Socialist Russia, to protect the line of imperial sovereignty as well as strive toward its line of economic advantage and equality through militaristic means before the world. Social Darwinism mentality (Xenophobic) and social solidarity too played a role in promoting survival of the strongest culture and towards a better future respectively .

The triple Intervention in 1895 forced Japan to give up Liaodong Peninsular and Russia moved into Port Arthur in 1898 further increased Japan’s sense of insecurity. The unequal provocation of the 1921-1922 Washington Conference which forced Japan an unfavorable battleship ratio of 5:5:3 for the US, Britain and Japan respectively and the Western powers at the London Naval conference of 1930 coerced Japan to accept the same ratio for its heavy cruisers . Series of coercive acts, insults, and provocation by Western Imperialist from the 1850s to the 1930s caused great anger that fester among the Japanese people. One such outrage could be seen in Hibiya incendiary Incident in protest of the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. This series of international affronts to Japanese pride, status and Imperial sovereignty provided fuel for the pro-nationalists and conservative militarist that democracy should be abolished. In addition, ideology by Kita Ikki who promoted a radical nationalist vision that would later inspired political terror managed to invoke an exaggerated nationalistic vibes. It stir up young military officer’s to rise up and seize power, suspended constitution, and remake the political structure to unite the emperor and the people in destroying the Anglo-American monopolies of Asia.

Such insults were not merely in Japan but in the international arena as well. Strong racial prejudice by Westerners toward Japanese led to several impertinent incidents for the Japanese people that nurtured a sense of threat called “Yellow Peril” in the west. In the 1919 Paris peace conference, western countries rejected a simple Japanese request to have racial equality clause included in the League of Nations covenant. In 1905, California passed anti-Japanese legislation. In the following year, the school board in San Francisco ordered Japanese and other Asian children to attend segregated schools. In 1924, USA passed the Japanese Exclusion Act to shut off Japanese Immigration.

Meanwhile, other military extremist at home had brought a sudden end to party rule by another form of direct action – political assassination. On May 15, 1932, a group of young naval officers and army cadets, claiming that they were attempting to free the emperor from evil advisers, assassinated Premier Inukai, a professional politician and the head of the majority Seiyukai party . The army, profiting from this incident, demanded the end of party cabinet and the bureaucrats, while condemning the act of violence, tacitly accepted it as judgment against party government. Such compromise governments became typical of the rest of the 1930s. The military element in succeeding Cabinets tended to grow and party representatives slowly dwindled in number, but the professional bureaucrats retained the central and, theoretically the dominant position throughout the decades. However, the militarist definitely took the lead in creating new policies of government. With the success of their Manchurian venture assured and with the support of sporadic acts of terrorism by individuals extremists, they forced as much as their program as they could on the compromise government. By simply refusing to recognize the authority of the Diet over the Cabinet, the militarists robbed the Diet of one power after another, and by the end of the decade they had reduced it to just being a helpless and petrified “debating society”. The Great depression resulted in a temporary collapse of capitalism, which means end of “World Trade”. Japan became increasingly isolated from other trading nations due to the weakening Zaibatsu which in turn weakening liberal forces. As such the government of Japan needed to renew interest in colonial expansion to solve Japan’s economic problems.

The militarist also sanctioned and encourage a veritable witch hunt for all persons whose slightest word or deed could be construed to be Lèse majesté. According to Tanaka (1988),Liberal educators were forced to resign their academic positions on the grounds that they had handled the imperial rescript on education improperly, and leading statesmen were driven out of political life because some unfortunate historical allusion involving an emperor . Even the two great Imperial Universities at Tokyo and Kyoto, which had always enjoyed great prestige and considerable academic freedom, were condemned for harboring “red” professors and were subjected to purges. In 1933, a group of liberal professors was forced out of the Law department of Kyoto imperial university and two years later Professor Minobe Tatsukichi of Tokyo, a leading authority on constitutional law and a member of the House of Peers were forced into dishonorable retirement because he had described the emperor as an “organ” of the state through the organic theory . Social scientists, liberal educators, and moderate politicians soon learned to remain silence if they could not express themselves in the mystical terms of ultra-nationalism and abject devotion to the emperor. This showed that during the Taishō democracy, freedom of speech, thought, academic freedom and autonomy of universities were denied that showed a totalitarian rule.

The pro-nationalists and conservative militarist made skillful though possibly unconscious use of the smear technique. They exploited to the full each example of parliamentary corruption, making even minor incident into major scandals which were thought to discredit all democratic governments. Since the Zaibatsu interests did exert an undue influence over the political parties, it was not hard to turn the vague economic unrest of the peasantry and the more conscious distaste for capitalism shared by various other groups in Japan into a distrust of democracy. Since both capitalism and democracy had developed under strong occidental influence, it was not hard to convert the hitherto latent resentment of western power and prestige into an animosity for the political and economic institutions derived in such large part of the west. The military even extended their power into forming coalition with the zaibatsu however it was perhaps nothing more than a marriage of convenience, but it was nevertheless a successful working arrangement to perpetuate financial aid for the war. Not forgetting pro-nationalists organization and patriotic societies such as the Black Ocean Society (Gen'yōsha) and later offshoot, the Black Dragon society (kokuryūkai) which are active in domestic and foreign politics through helping foment pro-war sentiments, and supported pro-nationalists causes through the end of 2nd World War.

A major reason for the weakness of the defense of parliamentary government in Japan was that many members of the parliamentary coalition had little faith in democracy as such and looked upon the Diet and party government merely as convenient mechanisms through which they could exert their own influence. Such groups were won over with relative ease to a new coalition of forces, which had little trouble in silencing the weak and inexperienced elements still committed to democracy. The transition from the parliamentary 1920s to the increasing totalitarian 1930s, thus, came about through no political upheaval but rather through a small shift in the make-up of the forces which stood behind the government.

In retrospect, it is evident that the breakdown of democracy was the result of both internal and international factors that brought about the end of democratic developments. Approaches such as Western Impact Japanese response and Japan-centered analysis proved to be successful in explicating the declining trend sequentially right in 1905 and till 1932. The Taishō period indeed revealed striking dynamics of political, economic, military, social and psychological of Japan in general and Japanese in particular which brought about a failed experiment in democratizing Japan.

Bibliography

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2.Dickens, Peter. Social Darwinism: linking evolutionary thought to social theory. Buckingham [England]; Philadelphia: Open University Press, 2000. HM631 Dic 2000
3.Duus, Peter. The rise of modern Japan. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976. DS881.9 Duu
4.Duus, Peter. Party rivalry and political change in Taishō Japan. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1968. DS886 Duu
5.Falt Olavi K, “Emperorship as a National Symbol in Taishō Japan (1912-1926)”, in “Western interactions with Japan : expansion, the armed forces & readjustment, 1859-1956, pp. 57-68.” ed. Lowe, Peter & Moeshart, Herman (Sandgate, Folkestone, Kent : Japan Library, 1990) DS881.9 Wes
6.Fewster, Stuart. Japan: from shogun to Superstate. Ashford: Norbury, 1988. DS881.3 Few
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Book Review Essay: Nancy Abelmann, Echoes of the Past, Epics of Dissent: a South Korean Social Movement (Berkeley:University of California Press,1996)

2011-02-15T23:06:00.002+08:00

Nancy Abelmann (1996) examines the social and political activism of the 1980s in South Korea through the lens of the Koch’ang Tenant Farmers’ minjung Movement as subject of history. In the turbulent “summer of protest” of 1987, North Cholla province farmers organized to protest against the Samyang Corporation’s ownership of tenant plots which should have been distributed in the 1949 Land reform act. According to Eckert (1991), Koch’ang was a hometown of early capitalists Kim Yôn-su and Kim Sông-su, the founders of the Kyôngbang and Samyang companies respectively. Hence, Eckert’s (1991) accounts of the Koch’ang Kim family and their entrepreneurial activities during the colonial period from 1876 to 1945 helps to understand the movement of the Koch’ang tenant farmers that Abelmann (1996) investigates . With the inception of the Land reform, Samyang group failed in delegating land in Koch’ang in the late 1930s resulting in unhappiness amongst the tenant farmers. Motivated by the minjung spirit and the highly politicized atmosphere, the tenant farmers occupied the headquarters of Samyang in Seoul and demanded the company to distribute land in accordance with the land reform. Abelmann (1996) writes about their lives, their labor, protests and discourses of resistance.

The book is composed of 9 chapters in which the discussion moves back and forth between the villages of Koch’ang and Samyang’s headquarters in Seoul, and between past and present. Following the introductory remarks in the Chapter 1, Abelmann (1996) explores the discourse of minjung in Chapter 2, and maintains that the essence of the movement lies in its reinterpretation of the past against hegemonic views of governmental and corporate elites. Chapter 3 describes the farmers’ daily activities during their one month protest in Seoul, including the preparation of food, encounters with the media and the people of Seoul, and their confrontation with the police. Chapters 4 and 5 elaborates how these farmers construct their own version of “history” and the “present”, and provide an excellent comparison between the conflicting historical views of the farmers and the Samyang elite. The farmers accuse the Kim family of having collaborated with both the colonial government and the authoritarian regimes of the post-Liberation era. Chapter 6 deals with the discussions between the farmers and organizers, and presents the decision-making process behind the protests. Chapter 7 depicts the class structure of the village, which functioned as a variable in terms of ideology and participation in the protest. Chapter 8 analyzes rural mobilization and the state’s ideological programs in the post-Liberation period and concludes that “regardless of the vicissitudes and variety of their urban images today, farmers emerge not as passive objects but as subjects who have simultaneously structured by and resisted ideological, political and economic realities.” In the last Chapter, Abelmann (1996) revisits the farmers and other minjung activists several years after the protest, and she presents changes within the minjung movement during the late 1980s and early 1990s. The constant struggle for hegemony is indeed a popular genre in many historical literatures. Abelmann (1996) has aptly represented the idea in a relation between history and politics, like the relation between the past and present, and therefore an internal one: it is about the politics of history and the historical dimensions of politics.

Based on thorough research and observation, Abelmann’s (1996) discussions show keen analysis and erudition. Moving back and forth from past to present, from periphery to center, and from interpretations based on political and economic structures to those based on Korean culture, she draws a compelling map of the consciousness of the farmers and their supporters. The real importance of Abelmann (1996) works, however, lies in its focus on farmers, who have been neglected in the minjung literature despite their significance in the movement’s discourse. Thus far the great majority of discussions about the minjung and South Korean democratization have focused on organizers, students, industrial workers and the middle class, while farmers have been relegated to the margins. Abelmann (1996) brings farmers back to the center stage of minjung discourse and the movement, especially in Chapter 4 and 5, where she most effectively explores the farmers’ discourse and the challenges it issues to the hegemonic practices of the corporate elite. The Rhetoric Saemaul Undong movement too was incorporated in the book which was centered on the idea that individual effort and sacrifice would solve the economic problems of the rural sector . This could be a triggering point of the protest whereby the tenant farmers started to believe in the community spirit that when the people of the community work together they can do anything. I guess the basic thrust of the Saemaul was to eliminate fatalistic attitudes towards poverty and oppression and replace them with the attitude that “when there is a will, there is a way.” Rural communities needed to change their mindset, use a little elbow grease and cooperate and they will find prosperity. Sameul Undong has indeed wanting to get rid of the five-thousand year old moss towards poverty and transforming the negative society. In addition, the book stresses the role of social struggle in Korea’s transition to modernity which was marked by a high level of social conflicts and by clashes between modernity and tradition and between external and national values. In this process, history and tradition did not simply give way to modernity but have been continuously rediscovered and reappropriated for new social struggles. Korea’s modernity has indeed been woven out of these political, social and cultural materials rather than simply out of the universal fabric of capitalism.

While I enjoyed the book, a few minor points of critique against the idealistic, romantic view of the peasant protestors that Abelmann (1996) cherished come to mind. Firstly, Abelmann’s (1996) conclusion on the use of the past in the politics of the minjung could be expanded. Although she is certainly correct that “dissent is always an engagement with the past” and the past “echoes in the epics of dissent” , as is clear in the minjung’s self-empowering attempts to revive the memory of the Tonghak Peasant Revolution of 1894 and to stress its anti-elite character as seen in Chapter 2, in post-Liberation Korean politics, the “past” has nevertheless been used by not only dissenters but other social groups such as capitalists and the state, to either gain power or deprive others of it. For example, as described in Chapter 4, the Samyang elite, in their conflict with the tenant farmers, stress their role as “national” capitalists who not only competed with Japanese capitalists but also contributed to the enrichment of the nation. Similarly, in their arguments about the rightful ownership of the disputed land, both the farmers and Samyang elites cite nationalist credentials as the ultimate arbiter of legitimacy: the farmers criticize Samyang for its anti-national character in its collaboration with the Japanese colonial authorities , while the Samyang tries to depict itself as a nationalist corporation . Furthermore, farmers had not always cried out as a form of collective discontent in dire situations in past historical narratives. Understandably, in minjung discourse the authoritarian government of South Korea becomes an evil institution much more for its anti-national character as it is dependence on the United States of America than for its undemocratic qualities. Such arguments reflects the position of nationalism as the supreme moral value in Korean culture, and Abelmann (1996) could have explained more fully why nationalist causes became the ultimate determinant for both hegemonic and counter-hegemonic forces. I felt that the farmers’ outlooks after their culminating experiences of protest are given short shrift. In particular, gender relations could have been analyzed in greater detail, especially because Abelmann (1996) relates the story of a peasant woman in the first chapter as paradigmatic exemplar for her account . Abelmann (1996) describes the dominant role played by women at the protest site in Seoul as “the life of protest was in all ways sustained by women; they were the cooks as well as fearless protesters” merely tantalizing, however since Abelmann (1996) does not elaborate further, even in the final chapter where Abelmann (1996) reflects upon changes in villagers’ world view and lives after the protest. Yet village women might well have had their consciousness raised in regards to their own relationships with men as a result of their political struggle, especially since the protesters met with and defied patriarchal attitudes and rhetoric on the part of the landlords . Certainly, gender relationships are not the author’s main focus in study, but discussion here would have connected this experience with broader societal trends. If no changes occurred in the villagers’ notion of gender relationships after their protest experience, one can affirm the crucial vulnerability of the 1980s minjung movement in general: although pursuing dogmatic nationalism and procedural democracy, they rarely challenged the authoritarian and oppressive cultural foundations of the society, such as the Confucian patriarchy. However, the minjung movement has succeeded in alleviating the oppressive situations, to a greater or lesser extent.

Aside from these minor criticisms, the book with its first-hand observation and through scholarship, offers an excellent account of the discursive politics of the favourable minjung movement through the late 1980s and early 1990s. Anyone seriously interested in modern Korean society, politics, culture and history will find this book highly informative and helpful.

Bibliography

1.Abelmann, Nancy. Echoes of the Past, Epics of Dissent: a South Korean Social Movement Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. HN730.5 Abe
2.Eckert, Carter J. Offspring of Empire: the Koch’ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876-1945. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991. HC467 Eck

How do the earlier textual sources for Islamic history reflect the development of Muslim belief and practice in its formative stage?

2011-02-13T16:53:00.003+08:00

The Islamic faith indeed enumerates beliefs and practices of Muslims in its formative stage through Islamic primary sources like the Qur’an and Hadith. According to Espositio (2000), Islam in its religious sense means submission to the will of God and obedience to His law . Williams (1994) interprets that it is unlikely for a Muslim to question the teaching of Qur’an . Islam is defined through its meaning that governs action with Qur’an serving as a foundation of scholarship that puts meaning to Muslims lives. In addition, the Hadith is comparable in importance to contextualize the Qur’an in terms of its elaborations. Therefore, the approach to the development of Islamic belief and practice is dependable on earlier textual sources. Primary Islamic textual sources such as the Qur’an and Hadith are reference points of commonalty or contrast in reflecting the development of Muslims belief and practice in its formative stage.

The foundation of Islam is based on the five pillars; each is as important as the rest as stated in the Hadith of Gabriel shaped Muslim beliefs and practices during Islamic imperative years . Essentially, one has to testify the shahada (testimony) that there is no God worthy of worship but Allah and that Muhammad is the divine envoy which is clearly spelled out in the Qur’an . Shahada is fundamental to become a Muslim who has full conviction that Islam is the true ordained religion. This belief in one God is a psychological factor in preparing earlier Muslim for strict training to mold his actions in accordance with his Iman (faith). This reflects the development of Muslim belief in its formative time as a Muslim identity and absolute faith. Corollary to this faith is the obligation to be constant in prayer (Solat), care in obligatory charity (Zakat), fasting and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) translate the aspiration of Muslims to achieve an ideal condition of equality in simplicity mentality which simultaneously perceived as a unifying force. In addition, the Qur’an extended these beliefs into the six articles of Faith in God, Prophets, His Angels, Books, Day of Judgement and Destiny which are spelled in the Qur’an and Hadith as form of development from a polytheistic to a monotheistic society.

The establishment of ‘Solat’ occurred after Muhammad ascension to heaven during the night journey and the Mi’raj . For Muslim, prayer is an obligatory set of worship in which they humbly submit themselves to God, to praise him, glorify him, to repent to him, to seek his mercy, forgiveness and guidance from him. However, details of the most basic religious obligation such as prayer in Qur’an are generally guidelines without elaboration. As such, Hadith is often referred pertaining to its elaboration . In the Hadith, it was mentioned that the opening Surah of the Qur’an, al-Fatihah, was made compulsory to recite (Sahih Muslim) . The physical obligation of standing, reciting the verses of the Qur’an, bowing, prostrating and sitting are taught by the prophet himself as mentioned in the Hadith . The direction of prayer (Qibla) which changed its position from Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem to the Al-Haram Mosque in Mecca showed the development of prayer’s direction and prayers itself in its reformative years as spiritual nourishment .

Muslims are required to fast in the month of Ramadan . It is a test of moral character and an opportunity to meditate and reflect in Muslim’s developing years. While most people understand it to be merely refraining from eating, drinking and smoking at dawn through sunset for a month, it is much more than a physical endurance test . It is performed with sincere intention to please God, the most fulfilling and enriching act of spiritual dedication. It is also leads to a special endeavor to refrain from all evil and sinful acts. Fasting may create physical and economic hardship but the spiritual growth and moral up fulfillment reflect the development of Muslim belief in that blessing (Barakh) which Muslims strongly believes in.

Zakat is viewed as an act of worship and a spiritual investment. By giving a small amount of the yearly income to charity, Islam teaches gratitude to the bounties received from Allah. It purifies not only the property of the contributor but also the heart of the giver from selfishness and greed. It sanctifies the heart of the recipient as well and frees him or her from envy and jealously, fostering instead goodwill and warm wishes for the contributors. Although, payment of Zakat is an injunction frequently repeated in the Qur’an yet it was the prophet who gave the rules and regulations for its payment, collection and distribution principle . Renard (1998) asserts that Qur’an guides the righteous reflects the symbiotic relationship or development of Muslim belief and practices in its formative years .

Hajj is a seen as signs of devotion of Allah (Sha’airu’allah) . Pilgrimage to the Holy House (Ka’ba) is imperative duty if any can find a way to do so. A pilgrimage to Mecca is a once in a lifetime event of great importance and significance in the heart of every Muslims to visit Mecca and the ka’ba . Here Muslims demonstrate Islamic solidarity, brotherhood, and equality that reflect the development from a divided tribal society. Men and women, black or white, Arab or non-Arab, rich or poor, literate or illiterate, powerful or weak, ruler or ruled, together perform the same religious rites of circumambulate the Ka’ba. This was first performed by Abraham then Muhammad when he led his followers from Medina to Mecca in 630 AD . He cleansed the Ka’ba, removed all the idols, and re-ordained the building as the house of God . It was from this point that Hajj became one of the Five Pillars of Islam . Taken together, these five obligations create a continual renew of life focused upon the principal beliefs of Islam in its reformative stage.

As explained in Surah at-Takkathur, which says ayn al-yaqin which means “eye of uncertainty” that influence contemplation and spiritual practices . Esposito (2000) showed that the importance of the Qur’an that it transcends human activities and life due to its universalism . The Qur’an gave rise directly or indirectly to the major disciplines of Islamic learning such as the sciences of the Arabic language , from lexicography to grammar to rhetoric, was developed in order to reach an accurate understanding of the Quranic text (tafsir) that reflect the development Muslim practice and beliefs at its finest.

The Hadith as the second source of authority in Islam complements the Qur’an. In many cases, Qur’an generally deals with the broad principles or essentials of religion, going into details in very rare cases. The ultimate understanding of the Qur’an hinges upon the context of Muhammad’s life, either by showing in his practice (Sunnah) on how an injunction shall be carried out, or by giving explanations in words (Hadith). Three things which were mentioned in the Hadith are in zakat, hajj and prayers. As such in Islamic reformative stage, Muslims look into the Hadith or Sunnah for an explanation of Islamic practices.

The compilation of Hadith went hand in hand with the elaboration of Islamic law. Initially, Islamic law were not systematically elaborated, although there can be little doubt that both the Qur’an and Hadith were regularly invoked and used to derive laws that governed the lives of Muslims. Islamic law contains the code of conduct and behaviour in thought and action which Muslims are required to follow for their entire life. Most of the laws defined by Syariah find their basis in the Hadith, not the Qur'an. The Islamic law or Syariah law helps Muslims in its reformative years to develop a legalistic tendency, where everything tends to be reduced to black and white, right and wrong, permissible and impermissible. This in turn resulted in the emergence of various schools of jurisprudence (Madhabs) .

The Hadith not only mentioned about Islamic practices but Muslims use the Hadith as a pattern to guide their lives and a model for their behaviour. Since the Qur’an describes Muhammad’s noble personality in these words: “…and you stand as an exalted standard of character .” It is essential that Muslims wanted to emulate Muhammad through his ways of life whom he had endowed a community with a true religion through his preaching. Furthermore, he found a state, administered as the leader of this state which maintained internal peace and order, heading armies for external defenses, judging and deciding the litigations of his subjects, punishing criminals, treated believers and non-believers and he practically legislating in all walks of life are the essence source from the Hadith thus showing Islamic development .

In conclusion, the Qur’an and Hadith are two complementary primary sources of Islamic guidance. The Qur’an is the fountain source of Islam which bears essential principles, values, norms as well as few legal matters. On the other hand, the Hadith provides a harmonizing source of the Qur’an in having an interpretive context from the story while simultaneously giving authority to the narrative. With regards to the five pillars of Islam, six articles of faith, Syariah law and Muhammad’s practice, the Qur’an and Hadith are indeed dependable on each other to reflect the development of Muslim belief and practice in its formative years.

Bibliography

1.Esposito, John L. et al. The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. BP50 Oxf.
2.Fakhry, Majid. An interpretation of the Qur’an: English translation of the meanings: a bilingual edition. New York: New York University Press, 2004. BP109 Fak 2004.
3.Feener, Michael R. Lecture on “Qur’an and Hadith’ (2010, January 29) Notes retrieved January 31, 2010, from https://ivle.nus.edu.sg/default.aspx
4.Renard, John et al. Windows on the house of Islam: Muslim sources on spiritulity and religious life. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. BP161.2 Win.
5.Williams, John A. et al. The word of Islam. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. BP161.2 Wor 1994

Sufism - A Mystic Approach to Islam

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Introduction

Sufism or tasawwuf in the Islamic world is a mystic-visionary approach to Islam. Williams (1994), Renard (1998) and Esposito (2000) collectively explained that the Sufi path itself is viewed as an esoteric or inward (batin) aspect of Islam, as well as its exoteric or external (zahir) side. The foundation of Sufism was cited by Esposito (2000) in which he explained that the first basis of what Sufism was expressed through the word ‘Ihsan’ (p. 98). The state of ihsan consists of “of worshipping Allah as if you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you”, according to the Hadith of Gabriel (Esposito, p. 98). Hence, the man in a state of Islam is the Muslim, in a state of Iman – the mu’min, and in the state of Ihsan – the Muhsin. The Muhsin is regarded as the perfect khalifah who rediscovers “the most beautiful form” in which he was originally created as stated in (Williams, 1994, p. 125; Esposito, 2000, p. 96). His heart becomes like a well-polished mirror in which the divine face can be reflected. This “reflective” nearness to God is the ultimate goal of Sufi practices through various Tariqahs (paths) in achieving spiritual truth from God.

What kinds of intellectual and artistic models did the Sufis construct to express their views on God and the Universe?

First and foremost, what kind of intellectual and artistic models did the Sufis construct to express their views on God and the universe? I had always thought that Sufism is merely about spinning around in circles for hours, dancing or leaping in the air out of joy as a form of ritual as done by the Whirling dervishes. From what I gathered, there are 5 models or types in which Sufis constructed to express their views on God (tawhid) and the universe (Esposito, 2000, p. 101). These models are in the forms of both esotericism and exotericism as mentioned earlier. They are ritual prayers and fasting according to Islamic injunctions, remembrance of the “spiritual lineage” of each other through ‘divine love’, the practice of “dhikr”, an Arabic word for remembrance of God through invocation, meditative and contemplative practice, including intensive spiritual training, in “spiritual retreats” called “khalwa” and listening or sema to musical concerts, to enhance mystical awareness.

First and foremost, as any other Muslims, Sufi practices the standard practices of Islam- the five daily prayers, fasting, so on and so forth. From what I read from Renard (1998) and Williams (1994) anthologies, Sufis are usually more scrupulous in these standard observances. Sufis are practically pious individuals whereby they rarely missed or ignore such observances of God. In addition, Sufis may perform more carefully and more frequently as compared to standard Muslims. Sufis also have a variety of practices of their own. This initiation phase is important to symbolize that the initiate or disciple of Sufism is now ready to understand the “inner (batin) truth” of spiritual realities. Realities which can only be experience and understood by “intuitive knowledge”, knowledge which stems from the “heart”, rather than the “mind” to express their views on God.

One of the most artistic models that the Sufis constructed is the concept of “Divine Love”. Love was both the cause as well as the effect of gnosis (spiritual knowledge of a Sufi). A great ascetic of Basra named Rabi’a al-‘Adawiya elaborates on the loving the Lord in which all her passionate sayings and poetry always extended to the fact that God discloses Himself to the heart who loves Him with sincere devotion; the surest and sweetest relationship with Him is love (Williams, 1994, p. 114-115). A person was likely to achieve gnosis as a result of divine blessing only when he had devotion to God. While a person who had achieved gnosis could not help being overwhelmed and overpowered by cosmic emotion (jazba) and divine love. Love according to them was the emotive force of life in fact the reason for being. This powerful emotive model expressed by the Sufi dominated every thought or sentiments, contemplative life, theology, ritual thoughts of heaven and hell and all else. Esposito (2000) understood this love for their sheikh or teacher is a form of transmission of knowledge and devotion, similar to a child’s love for its parents (p. 360). Love of the sheikh is coupled with obedience to and imitation of the sheikh, both of which are made easier by love. Obedience is another is a necessity when following a spiritual guidance matters. Imitating the sheikh has obvious benefits. As has been said, the sheikh is himself following the Sunnah of the prophet and imitating the prophet, and so he who imitates the sheikh is thus imitating the prophet, but with a nearer, more visible artistic and intellectual model. Imitation of the prophet is compliance with the will of God, and the sequence sheikh->Prophet->God is found out only in imitation, but also in love. Hence, in loving the sheikh, a Sufi ultimately loves God.

In Jabarti’s account of ‘Ali al-Bayyumi in Renard (1998) anthologies states that many Sufis followed his way (Tariqah) (pp. 141-144). In this excerpt, it showed that Sufis spend time with Sufis for a variety of reasons, perhaps the most important of which is that people of common interests and views tend to associate. Esposito (2000) too agrees that Sufism emerged as a basic socializing force (p. 360). There are numerous occasions in that accounts on which Sufis gather together: the dhikr (spiritual invocations), various mawlid celebrations and probably a weekly meeting often known as a dars or a suhba and withdrawn (khalwa).

Dhikr is perhaps the most central intellectual or spiritual models of Sufism in seeking spiritual truth. Most Sufis engaged in ritualized dhikr ceremonies (Esposito, 2000, p. 360). It is performed by the repeated invocation of the Names and attributes of God. It is based on the Qur’anic verses in which God says “Remember me and I will remember you.” (Williams, 1994, p. 138; Qur'an (2:152), abridged). Although it may vary in different, but its ultimate model is to create spiritual awareness and love for God. It can be practiced individually or collectively (Renard, 1998, p. 142). Some orders perform it silently and some loudly; all under the direction of the Sufi master (sheikh). Dhikr includes various forms of expressing God’s awe in terms of recitation of supplication, singing, Sufi whirling, incense, ecstasy and perhaps to certain extend trance. These intellectual models could produce a sense of ecstatic fervor and intoxication (sukr). As a result, it prevents its participants from forgetting God. It also brings all the followers of a sheikh together and thus enhancing the unity of the community (Esposito, 2000, p. 360). It should be noted that dhikr is not exclusive to the Sufis as it is practiced by all Muslims as part of Islamic prayer and devotion.

Khalwa or spiritual retreats of Sufis for a fixed period (usually between 2 to 40 days, or for 24 hours) for intensive prayers and meditation and daytime fasting under the strict guidance of his master (sheikh). This could be seen like a form of internal hijra to the virtual community and do the dhikr in supplicating God Almighty. This practice of meditation or withdrawal is often used as an intellectual models in order to have a “spiritual heart”, through acquire knowledge and become attuned to the Divine presence, which is every vigilant. This could perhaps depend on emotions and imagination in strengthening the relationship between man and God.

Another important practice in Sufism in which Sufis constructed to express their view on God and the universe is called “sema” or “sama” which literally means listening. These auditions may be a recitation from the Holy Qur’an, or devotional poetry. Throughout the centuries, Sufi poets have written mystical poetries for devotional purposes and some have even accompanied by music (Williams, 1994, pp. 127-137). Poetry and symbolism becomes the vehicle of religious expression in viewing God and the universe. The 13th century poet Jala al-Din Rumi uses the language of love to express religious truth (Williams, 1994, p. 133). Listening to musical “concerts” is seen as part of Sufi devotion is permitted and practiced by certain Sufi orders. Another peculiar about Sufism is permitting a “mystical dance” known in the west as the dance of the whirling dervishes prevalent in turkey as shown on page 365 of Renard (1998). It was a Sufi order known as the ‘Mevlevi Order’ founded by the Sufi master Jala al-Din Rumi who lived in Turkey around 1200 CE (Williams, 1994, p. 137). To appreciate the significance of this dance, it is necessary to be aware of its symbolic interpretation and meaning. All 5 models of intellectual or artistic in expressing God and the universe are to prepare the Sufi for the “spiritual journey” along the Sufi path; a path which leads towards God through love and devotion.

What sorts of religious world views are reflected in the excerpts from Sufi texts in the Williams and Renard anthologies?

Readings from both Williams (1994) and Renard (1998) anthologies seems to suggest that the Sufi firmly believes that each individual spirit desires union with the Universal spirit, namely God Almighty after death. Although the experiencing God described by Sufis are supra-sensory, ultra-mystical and to a certain extend visionary. Nevertheless, this is the goal of every Sufi.

Religious world views in the excerpts from the Sufi texts teach that the Sufi who seeks God must advance by slow “stages” along the path. The “stages” which I can conclude relates to repentance, followed by abstinence, renunciation, ‘poverty’, patience and trust in God. Sufis did these slow stages to achieve spiritual enlightenment through various central forms such as Ascetics, Ecstatic, Antinomians, Poets and Dervishes as mentioned in Williams (1994) and Renard (1998) anthologies.

In ascetics (Williams, 1994, pp. 109-116) or mortification of self, Sufism reflects the religious view on Islam not as a mystical movement but rather an ascetic movement. The word Sufi may refer to a rough woolen robe of the ascetic. The anthologies cited al-Hasan al Basri who comprehend “mortification of the flesh and constant meditation on the Qur’an purified the heart and led to a deeper relationship with God (Williams, 1994, p. 110). Hatim al-Asamm also explained that modesty before God is one of the virtues of Sufi in getting near to God (Williams, 1994, p. 114). Although from the anthologies I read, Sufism is rather complex, but in general it signifies one who wears the garment of “suf” which means wool. In the beginning it was a mark of personal penitence but criticized the ascetics for wearing Suf in imitation of Jesus. With that, in describing Sufism as a mystical form of Islam is utterly wrong. As said earlier, through meditation on the Qur’an and praying to Allah, the Muslim ascetic believes that he draw near to Allah, and by leading an ascetic life paves the way for absorption in Allah, the Sufi way to salvation.

In ecstatic, the central doctrine of Sufism is love, divine love as mentioned earlier. The Qur’an teaches that “God’s mercy is greater than His wrath” and that “God’s love is His supreme attribute Qur’an (3:31), abridged” This ecstatic often not refers to the desire of the pleasures and bounties of Paradise as a Reward but rather with the sincere motive and intention of attaining proximity to God – purely for the sake of, and solely for the pleasure of God. As described by Junayd of Baghdad, “Sufism means that God makes you die to yourself and makes you alive in Him” (Williams, 1994, p. 119). Based on this, the Sufi path becomes a ‘path of love’, where the Sufi becomes the ‘lover’ and God the ‘beloved’. This “love affair” ends only with the ultimate union with the beloved in the hereafter. This love relationship is depicted in many volumes of Sufi literature and poetry.

In antinomians which means the idea that members of a particular religious group which in this case is Islam are under no obligation to obey the laws of ethnic or morality (Shari’a) give forth by that religion, and that salvation is by predestination only. This concept of salvation through predestination had caused disturbances in the Islamic World. One such example cited by Williams (1994) was a 10th century Sufi Mansur al-Hallaj who was executed for “apostasy” because it was said that he told poor people who could not afford the pilgrimage that they could fulfill their obligation by a visit to his house where he kept a model of the Ka’ba (p. 120). Another individual called Ibn al-Arabi was also labeled as apostasy due to its pantheistic or monism ideology (Williams, 1994, p. 123). As such, these reflect the sort of religious view during that time through Sufism.

Poetry is part and parcel of Sufism. Sufi poetry served either for private devotional reading or lyrics for music played during worship, or dhikr. Themes and styles established in Arabic poetry and mostly Persian poetry have had an enormous influence on Sufi poetry throughout the Islamic World, and is often part of the Sufi music. Sufi literature flourished in the form of manuals, mystical tales and anecdotes, treaties on Islamic theology, philosophy, metaphysics and mystical poetry (Williams, 1994, pp. 127-137). Sufi poetry is recited by Sufis to enhance mystical awareness. Such poetry written in the “classical era” was by Arabic poet Ibn al-Farid (Renard, 1998, p. 194-202), and Persian poets such as Jalal al-Din Rumi (Williams, 1994, p. 133). Ibn al-Farid was a master of Arabic poet tradition such as the Ruba’iyat, Ghazal and Qasida. On the other hand, Rumi perhaps is the best known in the West for his monumental poetic works called the “Masnavi” and “Divan-i-shams.” (Williams, 1994, pp. 133-138) Poetry imagery both symbolic and mystical depicts the central theme with which all Sufis are familiar with, are the “twinge of separation of the lover from the beloved,” the “individual soul’s desire for mystical union with the “Universal soul”. This indeed reflects the Islamic religious views during that time.

Veneration of Sufi saints seems a common practice amongst Sufi which was reflected in its religious view on the excerpts of Sufi texts (Williams, 1994, pp. 109-137l; Esposito, 2000, pp. 360-361). Devout Sufi masters who led highly devotional and spiritual lives were often elevated to sainthood. Sufis believe that a Sufi saint (although dead for hundred of years) can still make his “spiritual presence” felt to his disciples. Hence, it is common practice among Sufis to visit the tombs of Sufi saints to pay homage, recite Surah fateha and/or other Qur’anic verses passages, pray to God for isa-e-thawab (i.e. praying to God that the rewards of such recitations be bestowed on the dead), and ask for the deceased saint’s blessings (Esposito, 2000, p. 361).

Conclusion

In summary, a Sufi as one who is a mystic, empowered by the Qur’an and the Prophet, guided by their sheikhs, through the organization of Sufi brotherhoods, and intellectual and artistic models of devotional traditions (tariqahs). In addition to ritual prayers and fasting, he practices various techniques of meditations. Sufis recite poetry and delights in music all towards one goal, namely union with God, the Divine Beloved. Finally, it is said that Sufism in the olden days was a “reality without a name,” today it is a “name without reality.”

In the spirit of scholarly curiosity and academic exchange…

Islam and the Western World

2011-01-07T01:50:00.003+08:00

Introduction

The historical relationship between Islam and the Western world since antiquity have never been a model of harmony. The interaction of Islam and the Western world is often specific with Christian Civilization or as suggested by Esposito (2000) Christendom in which it often goes in line with the Byzantine Empire and Holy Roman Empire. Often this association is an enmity in which familiarity breeds contempt, and proximity brings about love and hate. It was thought by some expert, for example, Samuel Huntington (1993) that it was a “clash of civilizations”, however Edward Said (1993) sardonically reworded is as the “clash of ignorance.” From my point of view, instead of assuming that a stark choice exists between either conflict & coexistence, or that civilization with differing views might clash, I think it is good to draw on historic insights, remembering that religion change over time and that clashes & coexistence, accommodation and synthesis have taken place throughout history.

What is the history of pre-modern between Islam and the Western world?

The historical perspective of these two Abrahamic religions goes a long way to even the time of Muhammad. I would like to illustrate the historical perspective of Islam and Christendom into 4 broad periods.

The 1st period from 622 AD to 1492 may be considered as a period of Islamic ascendency which marked the year Muhammad exodus from Mecca to Medina and the beginning of the Muslim era. It also marked the fall of Granada, Spain in the Iberian Peninsula under the Caliphate of Cordoba (Esposito, 2000.p. 34) and the expulsion of Muslims from Spain due to the ‘reconquista’ by Spain’s Christian Kingdom (Esposito, 2000.p. 320).

Since the time of Muhammad, there is always a good interaction with Christians throughout his life. One popular tradition records a meeting in Syria between the young Muhammad and a Nestorian Christian Monk named Bahira who recognized the seal of prophethood (Esposito, 2000, p. 306). Another incident is that Muhammad’s prophethood was confirmed by Christian scripture when a Christian cousin of his first wife Khadijah, Waraqa ibn Nawfal, acknowledged Muhammad’s recitation of the revelation to be identical with that sent down to Prophet Moses (Esposito, 2000, p. 306).

The early community of Muslims in Medina established its presence and extended its domain primarily through carrying out a series of prowling expeditions against hostile tribes and also through mediation. As the so-called people of the Book, Christians and Jews were treated as minorities under the protection of Islam, believers in one God despite their refusal to accept the prophethood of Muhammad. They are called dhimmis (Esposito, 2000, p. 307). Adult male Christians were thus not required to convert, but they were required to pay a poll tax called jizya as the price of protection. Dhimmis were granted the right to practice their religion in private, to defend themselves against external aggression, and to govern their own communities using their own religious law. More often than not, dhimmis always believe that their life under the protection of an Islamic state is always better than living under the Byzantine Empire. The specificity of the requirements for people of book that enjoyed dhimmis status was spelled out in what has come to be referred to as “covenant of Umar.” (Esposito, 2000, p. 308) They were prohibited to build new churches or repair of those in towns inhabited by Muslims, beating the wooden clapper that Christians used to call for prayer was forbidden too, and the recruitment of new Christians was also outlawed as it was seen as an insult to Islam. Although, there are certain restrictions on the People of book, relatively the relationship between them in the early period was very much harmonious and peaceful. However, throughout the Middle Ages, there was a hardening of attitudes against dhimmis, due more to political than to religious reasons, especially after the period of the crusades as explained by Esposito (2000, p. 309).

As Islamic civilization expanded its civil and religious order beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula, and ultimately encompassed most of the Byzantine Empire, Persian Empire and the former lands of the Roman Empire in North Africa and Spain (Esposito, 2000, p.309). The Christian West became aware of Islam potent presence on its doorstep in Europe at the time of Charlemagne, King of the Franks (768-814) (Esposito, 2000, p. 314). Although Charlemagne put a stop to the advance of Islam at the heart of Europe, the borders between Christianity and Islam have remained remarkably the same ever since. The fall of Granada holds an important place among the many significant events that mark the latter half of the 15th century. It ended the eight hundred years-long Islamic presence in the Iberian Peninsula. It culminated in the expulsion of Muslims from Spain in 1492 due to the reconquista of Spain’s Christian Kingdoms (Esposito, 2000, p. 320). However, according to Esposito (2000), Christian rulers who are concerned with maintaining their own power are known to invite Muslim forces to garrison their cities for protection (p. 315). Some even involved with intermarriage with Muslims to consolidate their power. For example, Duke Eudes gave his daughter in marriage to the Muslim ruler of Cerdana in order to forge alliance to secure his southern borders (Esposito, 2000, p. 315).

In Andalusia (711-1086), Christians and Muslims coexisted well with each other and the establishment of Muslim presence did not take place without much difficulty. Christians living in al-Andalusia under the Muslim caliphate could not help but be impressed by Muslim society. Even while remaining Christians, they became Islamicate or Arabized (Esposito, 2000, p. 317). Many learned Arabic, read Arabic poetry and copied aspects of Muslim culture because that gave them greater status and opened up opportunities for education and thus better jobs (Esposito, 2000, p. 318). In Toledo, Cordoba and Seville, Jews, Christians and Muslims freely mingled and shared in research, translations and discussions. Scholars from all three groups even worked together to translate Arabic and syric manuscripts to Latin as suggested by Esposito (2000).

From what I gathered, the first period which marked the interaction between Muslims and Christians is far from clear, as the reality of who the adversaries actually were. However, accounts from the above clearly stated that there are indeed diplomatic ties within the Islamo-Christian civilization which culminated to an aggressive and offensive backfire due to territorial, political and theological struggles.

The 2nd period represents a Western counter-movement against the Muslim occupation of the Holy Lands by means of a series of Christian crusades dragged on from the 11th Century into the Ottoman period until 1683 when the expansion of that last Muslim empire into Europe was stopped at Vienna.

The existence of Islam has always made the Christian West profoundly uneasy. Islam was the only major religion to be revealed after the rise of Christianity, and consequently it was, from the movement of the revelation of Islam in the 7th Century AD, viewed by Christendom as a direct threat and challenges to itself. The threat of Islam to Christianity was increased by the fact that Muslims regarded Islam as having superseded Christianity (Esposito, 2000, p. 329). In the eyes of Christians, Islam was something to be suppressed and if possible, destroyed. On the other hand, Muslims was ignorant of the Christian West because it was indifferent to it. In the Muslim views, since the revelation of God to his prophet Muhammad supplemented and made perfect all previous revelations, it followed that Islamic civilization is indeed superior to Christian civilization as it was sanctified by God. While the Islamic civilization was at its peak of grandeur, the West was stagnating during the Dark Ages (Esposito, 2000, p. 329). This resulted in the Muslims’ perception that they have no reason to modify their view. I risk laboring on this point because broached on school textbooks, which see world history almost exclusively in terms of Europeans history and not from either an Islamic or European historical perspective could made us to view world history from a myopic and ‘controlled’ standpoint.

From my point of view, the problem posed itself on two levels: the political & military and the theological aspects. On the political and military level, Christendom had the response of a military counter-action (crusades). On the theological level, Islam could be regarded as a Christian deviation, as a schism within the ranks of Christianity, or as a new religion (Esposito, 2000, p. 321). By the end of the 7th century, the Mediterranean region had become a Muslim territory with Muslims controlling the whole southern shore of the Mediterranean from Anatolia to the Straits of Gibraltar (Esposito, 2000, p. 316). Despite the impressive Muslim conquests, however the Christian west saw Muslims as one of a large number of enemies that they have to deal with. It must be understood that Muslims threat was not the only enemies within the European Sphere, others such as the Norsemen, Slavs and Magyars too threatening Europe at the same time; therefore it is safe to say that the political and military reaction of the Christian West was limited and ad hoc.

On the theological and religious levels, the reaction of the West towards Islam impact was strong, sustained and almost without exception, hostile. I guess this hostility was based on fear, and fear had its roots in ignorance (Esposito, 2000, p. 321). I am not very sure but perhaps Christendom was prompted by Odium theologicum or literally means theological hatred, thus had no desire to try to understand or even tolerate Islam. This could be seen not just against Islam but Jews as well; which could be seen during the Byzantine era. Although Christendom and Islamic Civilization interaction coexisted; at best this co-existence was on a cold war basis and often interlined with apprehensiveness for roughly three centuries till the crusade in 1095.

From my point of view, six points in particular had helped Christian west to go over to the offensive against Islam at this time: the first point was the adoption of Christianity about 1000 AD by the Norsemen and the Magyars, an event which freed Christendom from the constant pressure of these barbarians. The second point was the collapse of the Umayyad caliphate in Spain in 1031 and resulting half century of anarchy in Muslim Spain which prompted to take advantage of such situations (Esposito, 2000, p. 34 & 320). The third point was that Muslims conquerors have undertaken Holy lands of the Christians like Jerusalem, thus Christians wanted to bring them under their control once again (Esposito, 2000, pp. 335-337). The fourth point is due to economic. The population of France had increased beyond its capacity of its natural resources. In the 11th century Muslim forces threatened trade in Byzantine territories and the city of Constantinople. The fifth point is that I saw the crusade as a divergent to the political arena of the Pope. Pope urban II with great political skill wanted to divert the Barons (French nobles) from their fratricidal quarrels, and uniting them in a common struggle against the infidels, a struggle which he endowed with the sanctity of a Holy war. The sixth point was the dramatic change of Muslim empires in mishandling its non-Muslim counterparts which resulted in unhappiness, uprising and revolt. The Umayyad Dynasty introduced the dhimmis system and the Ottoman Empire introduces the janissaries’ army which compromised of non-Muslim slaves (Esposito, 2000, p. 377). These could be a triggering point in such unhappiness. As a result, the crusade is not merely liberating holy sites but also releasing its own people of the same religion from suffering and oppression. As explained, these six points could actually fuel the propaganda efforts of those generating enthusiasm for the military counter-action (crusades).

Within a few years, Christendom carried its counter attack into the heartlands of Islam in the Middle East, when Pope Urban II declared a holy war against Islam, and the first Crusade was launched in 1095 and lasted beyond the 15th century (Esposito, 2000, p.337). Many European noblemen took part and the three most powerful monarchs of Western Europe such as Richard I of England (the ‘Lionheart’), Philip II of France, and Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire joined in towards the militarized zeal. Jerusalem was recaptured on July 15, 1099. When the Muslims were united under Saladin in the 12th century, he defeated the Latin army at Hattin and soon recovered the city of Jerusalem and other territory for the Muslims (Esposito, 2000, p. 339). A fifth crusades under Frederick Barbarossa gave Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth to Christians for a while, together with access to the coast, beginning in 1229. But the areas were lost to the Muslims again in 1244. The siege of Vienna in 1529 attempted by Ottoman Empire maximizes to extend of Ottoman expansion in central Europe. Even then, it didn’t substantially alter the existing borders between the two Semitic religions. The janissaries also began to voice their displeasure at the progression of events, demanding a decision on whether to remain or abandon the siege. Esposito (2000) cited that after the crusades was over, each of them (Islam and Christians) constituted two separate societies with their own land and administration , and even attempted to cooperate and coexist along each other and this could be shown in them trading (p. 341).

In retrospect, considerable bitterness built up on all sides among the two religions, with stories told to justify behavior and condemn the cause of the enemy. These examples have circulated through the centuries and have done their parts to nourish suspicion and mistrust among Muslims and Christians alike.
How does this history relate to the understandings of these relationships today?

The end of the Crusades could be conceived as the beginning of a 3rd period that finally led to Western ascendancy and subsequent domination of the Islamic world in the 19th and 20th centuries through the industrial revolution, colonialism and White man’s burden. Western perception of Islam and Muslims has long been dominated by confrontation and negativity.

Throughout the 20th century and into the 21st century, the image of crusades continues for both the western world and Islam. After the Second World War, crusading rhetoric was used against the communism in the Cold war which operated throughout the 1950s. Crusade imagery is also to be found in modern Islamic political ideologies. Throughout the 19th century, the progress of European imperialism in the Middle east has made crusading parallels seems more and more appropriate: the ottoman sultan abs al-Hamid II (ruled 1876-1909) repeatedly asserted that Europe was conducting a crusade against the Ottoman empire, but it ultimately collapsed in 1922. In the period immediately after the first world war, during the British mandate, and then particularly after the creation of the state of Israel after the second world war, ‘Saladin’s victory over the Crusaders at Hattin became a central theme in the Palestinians’ political struggle against Zionists (Esposito, 2000, p. 339). Saladin himself was increasingly portrayed as ‘the prototypical religio-political fighter against foreign oppression, and it extended that he is now the greatest fighter for Islam against western aggression and Arab political leaders vie to become the second Saladin. Saddam Hussein and even Yasser Arafat was deem as the second Saladin. It is not surprising that the crusades are seen through an anti-imperialist prism and the Islamic response in the 12th and 13th centuries is viewed as the blueprint for modern Arab and Islamic struggles for independent from western colonialist aggression.

The last period is the relations between Islam and the west characterized by an increasing Muslim resistance against western domination that began in the 19th Century and to the present.

Modern Islamic activists make great use of the idea of crusade or Jihad, seeing Israel as the latest Middle Eastern crusader state, and interpreting all Christian attacks on Islam throughout its history as crusades – from opposition to Islamic conquerors in Syria and Palestine in the 7th century, to the reconquista of medieval Spain (Esposito, 2000.p. 320). Likewise, for other Islamic radicals the crusades have not ended either for the Christians – who in their view are still determined to destroy Islam – or for Muslims. Osama bin laden umbrella organization is called the world Islamic front for crusade against Jews and Christians (Al-Qaeda network). Hamas, founded in the Israeli occupied territories in 1967, has its goal on the liberation of Palestine from Zionist occupation and the reestablishment of an Islamic state (Esposito, 2000, p. 585). It regards western attempts to take Palestine in the First World War as merely another example of crusading incursions (Esposito, 2000, p. 557). Meanwhile, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) seeks to purge the Islamic ummah of colonial contamination and sees Israel as a colonialist bridge-head through which America and Europe perpetuate their control and their economic exploitation of the Muslim world (Esposito, 2000, p. 583). With Palestine and the state of Israel continuing to be a focus for western interference and intervention, Islam cannot forget the crusades – their impact had indeed lasted and has resulted in battle lines of misunderstanding and hostility being drawn up between East and West. The crusades still reverberate with incredible force in relations between the Christian west and Islamic Near and Middle East nine hundred years after the first crusade set out to capture Jerusalem for Christendom.

Islamophobia is another term which is coined that refers to prejudice or discrimination against Islam or Muslims. Islamophobia was repeated times and times again due to the repercussion of September 11, 2001 incident and many other subsequent fatal incidents which related them to Muslim related activities like the subway bombings in London in 2005. From electronic and advertising Medias, everyone especially from the Muslim countries, leaders as well as anti-racist activities wanted to convince everyone of the irrational hatred or fear of the Islamic faith. It haunts the popular western imagination as an extreme faith that promotes authoritarian government, female oppression, civil war, and terrorism. This concept of Islamophobia could be traced back during the time of the crusades when the west was ignorant about Islam resulted in the hostility that was based on fear. Esposito (2000) too understood that fear has its roots in ignorance of each other (p. 321). In addition, the idea of Islamophobia stems out from a culture of victimization during the era of the crusades in which Islamophobia has become one-stop cause of the myriad of problems facing Muslims today. With this, I think to understand whether Islamophobia is a reality of life or merely a myth, an in-depth research based on statistics from reliable sources should be taken into consideration to see whether it is just a perception or merely a concocted propaganda.

In conclusion, although the interaction between Christendom and Islam is very much debatable in the 21st century historical context, I believe that the concept of “clash of Ignorance” which could be traced back during the time of the crusades as suggested by Edward Said (1993) seems to be true. However, we must not forget that the interaction between these two Abrahamic faiths are indeed shaped and were shaped by each other thus I hope that this “sibling rivalry” could actually end.

How have some of the changes of a western-inspired modernity been reflected in the careers of figure such as Shakykh Luqman or the interpretations of tradition by Taha Hussein?

The changes of western-inspired modernity have been reflected in both figures such as Shakykh Luqman (Renard, 1998, pp. 218-223) and Taha Hussein (Renard, 1998, pp. 124-130) with startling differences. Both are Egyptians.

Shakykh Luqman often portrayed himself as someone who speaks well of a contemporary life based on a traditional Islamic context (Renard, 1998, p. 218). Even though he was seen as a person with immense intellectual, western inspired modernity are not reflected in his way of life and thought. Perhaps, one of the reasons is that he was educated in a famous religious university of Al-Azhar in Egypt (Renard, 1998, p. 220). From what was narrated in the anthology, Shakykh Luqman seems a pious man who devoted himself to way of the Qur’an and Sunnah of Muhammad. He was practically sustained and was sustaining the communities he lived in by giving Friday sermons, teaching Al-Qur’an and others. He was also very much of a village boy as suggested by Renard (1998, p. 223), which partly explained why his career mobility was restricted. He also championed Islamic norms within the village based on “life historical approaches” in terms of cultural, social and psychosocial (Renard, 1998, p. 222). His understanding of the world was suggested by Renard (1998) as something that was influenced by mutual understanding, expectation and behaviour patterns with whom he grows up with (p. 222). I think this is true that on the concept of nature vs. nurture whereby he might be influenced by such cultural understanding that western-inspired modernity was not part of his agenda.

On other hand, Taha Hussein (1889-1973) was the opposite of Shakykh Luqman. Taha Hussein employed a modernist approach towards his life and the community which could be seen in the anthology “Interpreting Muhammad’s life in Modern Times” (Renard, 1998, p. 124). Being educated in Cairo University and later in Europe, his perception on life was often intertwined with a western-inspired modernity approach. In his book called Pre-Islamic poetry, he used a modern approach of literary criticism in analyzing ancient poetic pieces. Reflecting on this, there was an implicit call for a modern reappraisal of time-honored Qur’an and Sunnah interpretation (Renard, 1998, p. 125). Taha Hussein who was educated in the Europe saw that Taha Hussein epitomized Western orientation like many emerging Middle East elites for whom the acquisition of strength and prosperity was to be accomplished not by a return to an Islamic past or by Islamic modernist reform but rather a liberal, secular reform program draw heavily from the West. Taha Hussein also wrote extensively on tales and accounts of pre-Islamic Arabs in diverse forms (Renard, 1998, p. 127). He also added that there is life of an ancient should inspire the modern sublime eloquence in poetry and prose. With that I believe that Taha Hussein was focused on the practicality of Islam rather than the mere emphasis of it. Another view that I think inspired by the changes of western-inspired modernity is that Taha Hussein reflected the European orientation of Egyptian nationalism. This was especially evident in his attempt to establish cultural roots of Egyptians identity as well as to chart its future course, not in its Arab Islamic past but rather in the West. He explained that the cause of Muslim decline or incapability of meeting the new demands of modern life was due to Muslim perplexing mentality not to reestablish upon itself on Western models of political, social and legal change.

Conclusion

For over 14 centuries, Christendom and Islam have confronted each other as two incompatible and largely hostile systems of thoughts, morals, and beliefs. Battles between Muslims and Christians during the crusades built a deep hatred on each other. Today, I believe that we have options, and our choices can have major implications for the future. For example, if we believe in an impending clash of civilization as suggested by Samuel Huntington (1993) then we are in a sense casting our vote for violent conflict and will do little to prevent it from occurring. If, however, we take seriously the more all-encompassing concept of a symbiotic Islamo-Christian civilization, we are voting to work for awareness of both religions and mutual respect so that such a clash never occurs again. The choice is ultimately ours.

In the spirit of scholarly curiosity and academic exchange…

The rise of Islam in Africa

2010-12-18T01:16:00.004+08:00

Introduction

With the core of the Islamic world originating in the Middle East, it is often forgotten that the majority of the world’s Muslims are in Asia, and that Islam predominates or is strongly represented in more than two-thirds of the African continent.

How was Islam brought to Africa?

The early contact of Islam with Africa began during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad. He taught the oneness of God and abolition of priesthood for the Arab polytheist society. The Qurasyh – the priestly class of the Arabs, who was during that time custodian of the Ka’ba, began to hunt him and his early followers. When their oppression went beyond limits, the prophet advised the Muslims to migrate and seek shelter in some other parts of the world. Acting on his advice, the first batch of Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (present day Ethiopia) and sought refuge with Negus, a Christian King of Abyssinia in the year 615. It was significant that the first shelter of early Muslims was in Africa. The Abyssinians was reported to receive Muslims with open arms; respect and admiration, especially the preaching on Mary, mother of Jesus leading affirm that this indeed was God’s revelations (Esposito, 2000, p. 306).

Between the 7th and 8th centuries, Arab traders and travelers (Arab expeditions), then African clerics, began to spread the religion along the eastern coast of Africa and to the western and central Sudan (literally, “Land of Black People”) (Esposito, 2000, p. 475), stimulating the development of urban communities. The first converts were the Sudanese merchants, followed by establishing communication with a few rulers and courtiers (Ghana in the 11th century and Mali in the 13th century) (Esposito, 2000, p. 477). The masses of rural peasants, however remained little touched. In the 11th century, the Almoravid intervention, led by a group of Berber nomads who were strict observers of Islamic law, gave the conversion process a new momentum in the Ghana Empire and beyond (Esposito, 2000, p. 476). However, the only written documents at our disposal for the period under consideration derive from Arab sources such as accounts by geographers’ al-Bakri and Ibn Battuta (Esposito, 2000, pp.478-479).

The process of Islamization began when rulers were the early recipient of Islamic influence, and the royal court mediated Islamic influence to the common people (Esposito, 2000, p. 506). In Sudan, three major states developed in the grasslands south of Nubia since 1500-Funj, Darfur and Wadai-where Islam was corporate and communal. All obedient subjects were considered Muslims, whatever their way of life, while disobedience implied rejection of the corporate Islam of the community, and therefore apostasy.

It should be taken note that given its negotiated practical approach to different cultural situations, a more appropriate ways to consider Islam in Africa in terms of its multiple histories rather than as a unified movement. The spread of Islam throughout the African continent was neither simultaneous nor uniform, but followed a gradual and adaptive path.

What kinds of processes were involved with the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam in the pre-modern period?

It is undeniable that Islam is deep rooted in African populations. In the pre-modern period, various kinds of processes were involved with the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. The factors that explained the influence of Islam on the African world do not seem all determining, even if the combinations of all these factors in considered. One can however raise six factors which seem to better explain the success of ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam in general. It is (1) Adaptation of Islam to the African context, (2) Its propagation by men of the word, (3) Its propagation by Africans, (4) Its presentation like a religion of transcendent power, (5) The social prestige attached to it and (6) Its community nature.

Islam did not arrive on a neutral ground in Africa. The populations were marked by cultural, social and religious values different from those brought by Islam, thus adaptation of Islam to the African context was necessary for the process of ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. For example, the Islamic monotheism is foreign with the design of God in the African traditional religions (Esposito, 2000, p. 305). But, with great flexibility, Islam adapted and then rooted in this setting. An attentive reading of the Qur’an shows how the testifying of a unique God does not “skim the ground” of the old religious world of Arabia, but organized differently in tackling the “roots and branches” of the pre-Islamic traditional religions back in Middle East. Islam thus draws its capacity of adaptation from its experiment with the Arab animist milieu of before its birth. Moreover, it contains many elements which were already practiced by the African populations. Islamic African rulers still undergo traditional rituals, that is a combination of Islamic and traditional elements were accommodated by Islam to the African context (Esposito, 2000, p.479). In addition, although it condemns the polytheism, Islam accepts the existence of goods and bad spirits. It recognizes their influence in the life of the men, and it admits that the dreams and the visions are a real contact with the spiritual world. The consultation of the soothsayers and the practices of magic for all kinds of reasons, which is a feature characteristic of the African traditions are recognized by Islam (Esposito, 2000, p. 479). Also, polygamy is one of these traditional elements accepted by Islam. Pre-Islamic customs persisted even at the court of rulers who fully committed to Islam, however in about 1500, the rulers of Songhay (Esposito, 2000, pp. 481-488), Kaem and Bornu (Esposito, 2000, pp. 491-494) attempted to reform Islam, with limited results.

Although Islam is a religion with a book, it is transmitted by the oral proclamation. It is always by this mode that it is still propagated today. As of the beginning, the first agents of Islamization on the African ground were more people of the word than of the writing, thus this process of communicating of transmitting Islamic teaching orally is a process in the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. This phenomenon is significant when it is known that the cultures of Africa in general are always a culture of orality (Esposito, 2000, pp. 490-491). It is enough to see the importance that hold, such importance factor in the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. The population being illiterate, this teaching mode of memorizing and reciting that propagation of Islam used, was very effective. Although the fact of knowing to read and write spreads today, this teaching mode is always effectively used by Muslims. The Muslim must memorize the Qur’an and be able to recite it and use his contents according to his needs. Islam is before all an oral religion and the African culture stresses more the oral than the writing.

The penetration of Islam on the territory of the Sub-Saharan Africa was the work of the Arab Islamized Berber tradesmen of North Africa (Esposito, 2000, pp. 475-476). But thereafter, its propagation was the work of a top-down approach within African communities itself by African tradesmen, rulers, preachers and reformers. This fact is of capital importance in dealing in the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. This fact contributed to remove from Islam its character of foreign religion. Today still much of Africans, even intellectual, regard Islam as an African religion. One sees how much this factor contributed to the conversion of Africa in the Sub-Saharan African context. The first converts were the Sudanese merchants, followed by a few rulers and courtiers (Ghana in the 11th century and Mali in the 13th century) (Esposito, 2000, p. 477).

As of the beginning of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa, the role of Arab, Berber and African “marabouts” was dominating (Esposito, 2000, pp. 475-476). With this expectation, the work of the marabouts could only facilitate the acceptance and the integration of Islam by the African populations. Esposito (2000) stated that “praying to Allah saved the Kingdom, whereas the sacrifices performed by local priest failed” (p. 477). Esposito (2000) cited that the king of the empire of Mali (XI Century) and his people converted to Islam because a Muslim missionary prayed for the rain whereas drought was endured on the country. The invocation of the local divinities had not changed anything. But after the prayer of the Marabout (an Islamic religious leader and teacher in West Africa, historically in the Maghreb), the rain would come. With this expectation, the work of the marabouts which substantiated Islam as a religion of transcendental power could only facilitate the acceptance and accelerated the process by which ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam.
The growth of Islam went hand in hand with a new social force that perceived Islam as a religion of social prestige with the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. Islam developed in its centre, playing a role of collective social understanding, which it is for an association of mutual protection and support or for the benefit of the collective success. Muslim of the middle social class did not choose Islam for religious reasons but for socio-economic reasons piously as stated in various part of Esposito (2000, pp. 475-507). Very few people of the middle social class and higher (rulers) practice their religion. They are there because of their socio-economic wellbeing is related to the Muslim community. The trade is still today the means for growing much rich. However, it is held and controlled by Muslims. Conversion to Islam then becomes the way to be able to enter their milieu and joined the commercial network (Esposito, 2000, p. 477). For these tradesmen, the religion represents a way, fraternal solidarity, perhaps a capacity likely to be moneyed in amulets, in divinatory practices in order to secure a socio-economic wellbeing. Islam is thus not only means to grow rich by the trade but also the way to acquire supernatural capacities in order to secure a social notoriety.

From the beginning, Muhammad wanted to turn Muslims into a single and fraternal community the Ummah (Esposito, 2000, p. 555). Although the various groups and tendencies within Islam show that this Ummah was not carried out, Islam still portrayed a social cohesion. One can speak about the existence of a Muslim solidarity. The greatest attraction of Islam lies in its community solidarity in which perhaps African saw this brotherhood solidarity enticing thus promotes the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam. Essentially, being Islamicate is like being in a super tribe called the Ummah. Thus, this community nature of Islam was, and still today, a socio-politic factor of its rooting in the African context in general.

The community bond is a very significant socio-cultural element in Africa. Islam came with this value, and contributed to maintain it during a time of individualism and selfishness vis-à-vis modernization. In short, it is the conjugation of these factors which allowed the rooting of Islam in Africa.

These 6 processes mentioned could have initiated or accelerated the ‘conversion’ of Africans to Islam in the pre-modern period. Conversion of Africans is rather complex because Islamic conversion is not due to a unified movement by rather multiples of histories circumstances followed by a gradual and adaptive path of Islam itself in accordance to the heart of African populations.

What were some of the ways that local communities in the region were reconfigured as Muslim communities?

The resistance to Islam was due to the representation of people and animals, the nature of Islam’s interaction with the visual arts of Africa was one in which Islamic forms were accommodated and adapted. Muslim clerics’ (marabouts) literacy and esoteric powers drew scores converts to Islam. Sub-Saharan Muslim clerics known as marabouts began fabricating amulets with Qur’anic verses (Esposito, 2000, pp. 506 & 485), which came to displace indigenous talismans and medicinal packets. These amulets are features in the design of many traditional African artifacts.

Islam also reinforced the Africa fondness for geometric design and the repetition of patterns in decorating the surface textiles and crafted objects. Local weaving may have been transformed with the importation of North African weaving techniques. Islam has also often existed side by side with representational traditions such as masquerading. Such practices have often been viewed as supplemental rather than oppositional to Islam, particularly when they are seen as effective or operating outside of the central concerns of the faith. An early example of this was noted by Ibn Battuta, the Maghreb scholar who visited Mali in 1352-1353 and witnessed a masquerade performance at the royal court of its Muslim king (Esposito, 2000, pp. 478-479).

In many areas of Africa, the coexistence of Islam with representational art forms continues today. Although Islam has influenced a wide range of artistic practices in Africa since its introduction, monumental architecture is the best preserved legacy of its early history on the continent. Mosques are the most important architectural examples of the tremendous aesthetic diversity generated by the interaction between African people and Islamic faith.

What were some of the key aspects of the new Muslim cultures and societies that were formed in the process?

Islamic political and aesthetic influences on Africa societies were reconfigured as Muslim communities. In the capital cities such as Ghana and Gao, the presence of Muslim merchants resulted in the establishment of mosques (Esposito, 2000, p. 476). The Malian King Mansa Musa ruled from 1312 to 1337 brought back from the pilgrimage to Mecca the architect al-Sahili, who is often credited with the creation of the Sudano-Sahelian building style (great mosque of Jenne). Musa’s brother, Mansa Suleyman, followed his path and encouraged the building of mosques with minarets, instituted public prayers and attracted Maliki scholars, in the development of Islamic learning (Esposito, 2000, p. 532). He even renounced the treatment of free women as slaves as it was forbidden by Islamic law. The alliance between kingship and Islam made Islam into an imperial cult and encouraged obedience to rulers. As national feasts the Islamic festivals accommodated such traditional ceremonies as the recitation of songs praising the king and the appearance of masks (Esposito, 2000, p. 479). Muslims was also exempted to kneel down and sprinkled with dust (Esposito, 2000, p. 479). Islam brought to Africa the art of writing and new technique of weighting.

The city of Timbuktu, for instance, flourished as a commercial and intellectual center, seemingly undisturbed by various upheavals. Timbuktu began as a Tuareg settlement, was soon integrated into the Mali Empire, then reclaimed by the Tuareg, and finally incorporated into the Songhay Empire. Sonni Ali of Songhay Empire combined elements of Islam with beliefs and practice of the Songhay traditional religion and was greatly respected as magician king (Esposito, 2000, p. 481). In the 16th century, the majority of Muslim scholars in Timbuktu were of Sudanese origin. On the continent’s eastern coast, Arabic vocabularies were absorbed into the Bantu languages to form the Swahili language (Esposito, 2000, pp. 504-505).

On the other hand, in many cases conversion for sub-Saharan Africans were probably a way to protect themselves against being sold into slavery, a flourishing trade between Lake Chad and the Mediterranean (Esposito, 2000, pp. 491-494). For their rulers, who were not active proselytizers, conversion remained somewhat formal, a gesture perhaps aimed at gaining political support from the Arabs and facilitating commercial relationships. The strongest resistance to Islam seems to have emanated from the Mossi and the Bamana, with the development of the Segu Kingdom. Eventually, sub-Saharan Africans developed their own brand of Islam, often referred to as “African Islam”, with a specific brotherhoods and practices.

Bibliography

1.Esposito, John L. et al. The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. BP50 Oxf.

“Religion is a system of reward and punishment for human sinfulness.” Do you agree? Discuss this issue by comparing at least TWO religions.

2010-12-15T00:32:00.002+08:00

Reward and punishment are usually the main theme of most religions all around the world. The idea that a divine creator rewards those who do good and punishes those who stray is one that runs deep in many religious philosophies. This ideology of a system of reward and punishment is an integral part of the concept of divine justice dealing with human sinfulness. One such system is the belief of the afterlife. Almost every world religions seem to exemplify all beautiful things and eternal bliss with heaven; and suffering, torture and destitute with hell. The notion that those who falter through life will be eternally condemn to the abyss of hell bothered me. However I suppressed this conception that God is merciful and just and He knows something that I do not know. With reference to John Rawls' theory of social justice, he attempted to make a relation that if someone is committing a crime within a period of finite life, that person will not be rationalize with an infinite punishment (132). It is also contradicts that God is fair and merciful. This essay will examine Buddhism and Islam which are two unique religions in proving meaningful answers to the fundamental questions about life in general and afterlife in particular.

Buddhism denies the existence of God, but its philosophy bases itself on the aspect of human morality as well as escaping from the suffering of this world. Without any intellectual explanation and scientific support, these philosophies rest upon the twin concepts of Karma and reincarnation – the idea that human beings are perpetually reborn into this world and their successive lives are shaped by their behavior in their previous one. Edward Hopkins argues that Buddhist scriptures did not explained about how the universe, the world and living things came about (154). According to Buddhist’s perception, it is not even necessary to think about these worldly things. The imperative nature of Buddhism is to suppress desires, revere Buddha and escape from suffering (nirvana). From my point of view, Buddhism suffers from a myopic view of the world by not considering how their existence came to be. As such, it deters its followers from even thinking such thoughts and thus pressing them into an imaginary earthly life.

On the other hand, Muslims beliefs on the afterlife are radically different from the Buddhist’s perspective. Islam believes that life is transient and is part of a bigger sphere of existence. Sayyid Mujtaba Musavi Lari contented that life in the hereafter is eternal and of greater importance (215). Islam states that there is only one birth and resurrection (Qur’an, 62:8). A person will be resurrected after death during Judgement day in accordance to all the things he has done and the moral works he has performed, he will either be rewarded in paradise or condemn to endless hell. In short, human beings have only one life in this world and then an eternal afterlife (Qur’an, 30:16). Allah says in the Qur’an that life in this world is merely temporary testing period for everyone. The rewards for this testing period is paradise or be punish in hell. Muslims also have faith in the day of judgement; where all humans will be segregated between their everlasting destination of paradise and hell. This day of judgement or Qiyamah will be known as the “last day”, where everything and anything will be destroyed when angel Israfil blows a horn and sending out a Blast of Truth. Pending for judgement day to come, the deceased souls will wait in their grave for resurrection to occur. The deceased are now in the world called the barzakh. They will be punished in accordance to their sin at the moment of death (Qur’an 6:27, 32:12) However, the departed will immediately begin to taste what is in store for them, for those bound for hell will suffer in their graves while those bound for heaven will be in peace until the last day. This is in accordance to Muslim burial rite that they should be buried almost immediately upon their death due to the fact that they wants the taste of heaven in their graves. The resurrection spoken in the Quran is physical and real (Qur’an 3:185).

Buddhism attempts to suppress all human desires to prevent human sinfulness is by its doctrine of nirvana. According to David Kalupahana, the “nirvana” that is promise to its believers is nothing less than a schizophrenic breaking of all connection with life by a melancholic mind that takes a dim view of the world (153). Buddhists should detach themselves from the worldly desires and ultimately pave for salvation which is seen as a reward in the Western Paradise. This contradicts the notion that God blessing is this world is to benefit human beings and so they would supplicate to him in return. In the Catholic Encyclopedia, Charles Frances Aiken describes this aspect of Buddhism in dealing with sin is “pessimism in which a man is denies of an afterlife that finds no happiness in this life”. Likewise, human sinfulness was not actually justify but was rather brought forward to the next life with the idea of reincarnation. This might result in human sinfulness being leniently handled and poetic justice unable to be carried out. Islam rejects rebirth because rebirth encourages moral laxness in dealing with human sinfulness. In Buddhism; rebirth means another chance of proving to oneself to become better but how long must this vicious cycle continues to deal with human sinfulness.

Buddhism’s doctrine of karma leaves no room for the notion of afterlife (heaven and hell) as perceived by the Islamic faith. To deals with human sinfulness, Buddhism implies explicitly that there is no punishment predicated on human beings but rather karmic law itself. Believing in the cycle of rebirth through karma rejects the concept of punishment and rewards in the afterlife. The concept of heaven and hell is rejected because there is no divine ruler meting out punishments or bestow rewards. They claimed that the concept of hell and heaven actually exists on earth itself through rebirth (Law 22). Perhaps the retribution, hardships and suffering they went through are seen as punishment for the sin they did in their previous lifetime. Instead karmic law will lead the spirit of the dead to reborn, in realms which are appropriate with their karmic accumulation in their previous life. Looking at this philosophy of Karma, Buddhism’s idea of human sinfulness was solely based on reaping the consequences of their action – be it positive or negative. The unquestionable law of karma and rebirth allows Buddhism to be justifiable as a moral agent of the reward and punishment. Possibly, Buddhist idea of rebirth is seen as another chance to work toward realization and atonement of human sinfulness in their past life, while Islam considers life to be a given chance to prove his worthiness to enter paradise. In the sociological sense, Buddhism provides a mean of social control of individuals’ deviant behaviour through moral manifestation and not through vindictive or retributive punishments as suggested in Islam. Personally, the idea of karma in dealing with sin is defective in the sense that it can rise to a magnitude of problem such as despair if faithfully believed in and contradicts to the moral struggle of someone. This feeling of despair might destroy the psychological mechanism and might cause someone to detach fully from his worldly connection. Islam solves the problem of despair with its concept of God.

Islam provides the motivation to overcome psychological barrier in the moral struggle with its system of rewards and punishment (Heaven and Hell) which does not remain confined within the limits of exactly programmed accuracy like karma but is balanced in favour of rewards for the good. According to Keith Ward, there is no logical explanation of a creator in Buddhism thus ignoring man’s emotional nature and religious consciousness in dealing with human natural pattern (100). I understand that the intention of karma is good however in a moral struggle; man craves for a source of unfailing hope and comfort through forgiveness, repentance and atonement. The concept of a merciful, just and compassionate God who is full of grace and with a system of rewards and punishment as suggested in the Islamic faith balanced in favour of good instead of just retributive justice (Quinn et al. 562). Islam deals with finite human sinfulness or goodness with an infinite nature of the punishment or reward respectively. Being infinite, Islam envisages a resurrection of the soul at a time of final judgement. On Judgement day, Allah will raise everyone and determine individual destiny (Qur’an 3:185). A person’s everlasting destination will depend solely on a balance of good and bad deeds. On the last day, a person will either be granted permission into paradise or condemned to hell. With this, Islam deals with human sinfulness with Hell as a place of purification and is transient. In contrast to Buddhism, the Islamic faith provides vivid descriptions of both heaven and hell. Paradise is explained as a place of physical and spiritual pleasure with lofty mansions, delicious foods and drinks and virgin companions (Rustomji 150). The level of hell depends of the degree of offenses, and suffering in hell is both physical and spiritual (Qur’an 15:43-44) Paradise will be eternal. Once meriting it, there can be no question of being ejected. As to whether hell is eternal for the unbelievers, there two possibilities (1) a great majority of Muslims affirm that god may pardon every sin and every crime except disbelief in god (Qur’an 4:48-116) (2) others believe that even the punishment of disbelief may one day terminate by the grace of god (Qur’an 11:107). Muslims do not believe the idea of vicarious atonement on the day of judgement. They believe that each person is responsible for his or her own actions and that no-one else can atone for them. This idea is very similar to Buddhism’s karmic law of that we are responsible for own happiness and misery, “the architect of our fate”. However, someone could pray to God for his mercy and forgiveness on behalf of another person. Prophet Muhammad and some others (etc innocent babies who have passed away) are given the special privilege to intercede on behalf of their parents on the day of Judgement. So with God’s graceful permission, they may have a specially bestowed privilege of pleading on behalf of others and begging for god’s forgiveness on the day of Judgement. This is known as intercession (shafa’t) (Lari 199).

Despite all the significant differences between Buddhism and Islam in dealing with human sinfulness, both share the same belief that the afterlife exist, with Buddhists believing in Nirvana and Muslims believing in heaven. Islam related to god who created everything in the universe - heaven and hell as reward and punishment, condemned reincarnation and resurrection on Judgement day. On the other hand, Buddhism propagating the doctrine of karma and rebirth justify its ideology in dealing with human sinfulness. Islam induced morality based on fear of punishment but Buddhism based on instilling morality through consequences probability in dealing with human sinfulness. Both Islam and Buddhism have indeed shown contrasting ideas on how human sinfulness is being handled and assimilated into their respective principles of beliefs.

References

1.Aiken, Charles Francis. "Buddhism." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 18 Sept. 2009 .
2.Blocker, H. Gene and Smith, Elizabeth H. John Rawls' theory of social justice : an introduction. Athens: Ohio University Press, c1980.
3.Fakhry, Majid. An interpretation of the Qur’an: English translation of the meanings: a bilingual edition. New York: New York University Press, 2004.
4.Hopkins, Edward W. The religion of India. Boston, London, Ginn & Company, 1895.
5.Kalupahana, David J. Karma and rebirth: foundations of the Buddha's moral philosophy. Dehiwala, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2006.
6.Lari, Mujtaba Musavi, Sayyid. Resurrection judgement and the Hereafter: lessons on Islamic doctrine. Iran: Islamic Education Center, 1992.
7.Law, Bimala C. Heaven and hell in Buddhist perspective. [Varanasi]: Bhartiya Pub. House, 1973.
8.Quinn, Philip L. and Taliaferro, Charles. A companion to the philosophy of religion. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997
9.Rustomji, Nerina. The garden and the fire: heaven and hell in Islamic culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
10.Sherman, Barrie and Judkins, Phillip. Glimpses of heaven, visions of hell: virtual reality and its implications. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1992.
11.Ward, Keith Is Religion Dangerous? Oxford: Lion, 2006.

Personal Statement in relations to my interest and reasons for wanting to apply for the degree programme in Bachelor of Podiatric Medicine (BPodM)

2010-12-13T01:01:00.003+08:00

According to the National Health Survey carried out in 2004 by the Ministry of Health (MOH), 328,000 people in Singapore aged between 18 and 69 were reported as having diabetes mellitus. Moreover, The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that, by 2030, with increased life-expectancy, 695,000 Singaporeans will have diabetes (Emuang, n.d.). The Ministry of Health (2006) statistics rank diabetes as the seventh leading cause of death in Singapore, with 3.3 per cent of deaths attributed to the disease (Chio, 2008). These have resulted in escalating concerns about problems in educating, screening and treating with the increasing trends of diabetes, aging population and obesity increases.

Foot problems in patients with diabetes are a major public health concern. Cavanagh et al (2008) asserts that the complication of diabetes most relevant to the lower extremities are distal peripheral neuropathy and, to a lesser extent, peripheral vascular disease. Losing part of a limb or major amputation are the most feared problems among patients with diabetes mellitus. Sensation loss predisposes the patient to unrecognised injury and ulceration (Rahman et al, 2006). In a few unfortunate cases pointed by Charanga et al (2004) this leads to infection and amputation. It has been observed that thickening of skin and increased pressure in the foot sole precede ulceration. Therefore, it is essential to find and quantify patients at risk of ulceration and getting clinician to make appropriate steps to prevent ulceration and amputation. As such I foresee that more and more qualified podiatrists are in demand to prevent escalating effect of diabetes in the future. With this, I personally think that podiatrist is a highly field to be explored and researched on especially in Singapore context. I am interested in diabetic foot care, biomechanics and sports medicine.

An important reason why I am interested in studying podiatry is the career prospect. Although I am equipped with a diploma in Biomedical Engineering, I am confident that I have the necessary skills, attributes and commitment to complete this demanding course. During my final year project, I did a project entitled ““Analysis of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy” (Rahman et al, 2006; Acharya et al, 2008). We published 2 papers based on this work. This project has enriched and exposed me to the health sciences field especially in an evidence-based research. Moreover, my engineering background could perhaps enhance the education, training and experience that come along studying with this degree. This degree will train myself to become a professional podiatrist who deals with the prevention, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of medical and surgical conditions of the feet and lower limbs.

I will learn how to assess, diagnose and treat foot ailments. Being someone who is interested especially wound care and rehabilitation, I am adamant in understanding and explore minor foot conditions such as ingrown toenails, corns and calluses, to more complex conditions such as sports injuries, foot deformities and side effects from other medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus which is a prevalent disease in my home country, Singapore. With an increasing healthcare institutions (e.g. Khoo Teck Puat Hospital (under construction) and Jurong General Hospital (planned)) sprouting in Singapore, I really hope that I could be part of the healthcare professional sphere in treating foot conditions before they become a problem, by providing preventive medicines.

Another reason is that I like interacting with people on a daily basis. The strong emphasis on hands-on podiatry practice, such as clinical practice and internships are what I am looking for in a job. In a nutshell, it is actually a more practical sense in fulfilling my ambition in helping others as well as providing a good clinical care for a greater good. Being 24 years old, I know what I want in life, which is to get a good education that enables me to contribute back to society. My interpersonal skills through social communication and interactions have improved throughout the years. My final year project helped me to be approachable and to work closely with patients while collecting diabetic data. Not only that, my industry attachment programme at Alexandra Hospital which I am responsible in provisioning breakdown services, preventive maintenance and commissioning new equipment provided me with the analytical, interpersonal communication and computations skills which I could implement during my study as an podiatrist.

The last reason is my love of science and aspiration for a medical career is reflected in my polytechnic choice where good time management, self motivated study skills and ability to cope with stress and pressure are essential. Modules such as biomechanics which I took have helped me further my interest and develop my analytical skills whereas mathematics improves my problem solving skills, which helps me to work logically. Ngee Ann polytechnic’s integrated computer environment gives me a valuable insight into the rapidly developing technological world where computers are crucial. I believe all the qualities I have developed through my courses are essential for any good podiatrist.

In conclusion, it is evident that podiatry is a vast field to be explored in Singapore; therefore the demand of podiatrists should be well received. The career prospect, interaction with people and the love for science should be my good testaments in being a good podiatrist. I hope the University of Western Australia’s selection committee could deliberate, evaluate and weight my reasons for application in the Bachelor of Podiatric Medicine (BPodM) Programme. Below are two referees for your references. I look forward to the challenges and range of experiences that awaits me in higher education and university life. Thank you.

References
1.Acharya R.U., Rahman, M.A., Aziz Z., Tan P.H., Ng E.Y.K., Yu W., Law C., Subramaniam T., Wong Y.S., Sum C.F. (2008). Computer-based identification of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy. Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology (JMMB), USA, 8(3), 363-375. Retrieved January 02, 2010 from http://www.worldscinet.com/jmmb/08/0803/S0219519408002668.html
2.Cavanagh, P.R. and Ulbrecht, J.S. (2008). Levin and O’Neal’s the diabetic foot 7th Edition. Section A, topic 6: The biomechanics of the foot in diabetic mellitus. Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier, 115-185. Retrieved January 02, 2010 from http://books.google.com.sg/books?id=M7ENEwXCTYwC&pg=PT132&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
3.Charanga, G., Patil, K.M., Narayanmurthy, V.B., Parivalan, R., Visnanathan, K. (2004). Effect of foot sole hardness, thickness and footwear on foot pressure distribution parameters in diabetic neuropathy. Proc. Instn Mech, Engrs, Journal of Engineering in Medicine, 218, Part H, 431-443. Retrieved January 02, 2010 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15648667
4.Chio, S.M. (2008, June 07). Health Promotion Board (HPB) kicks off six-month diabetes awareness campaign. Channel NewsAsia. Article retrieved January 02, 2010 from http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/singaporelocalnews/view/352604/1/.html
5.Emuang, K.G. (n.d). Young with Diabetes. National Healthcare Group. Article retrieved January 02, 2010 from http://www.nhgiplc.com/files/healthBites/others/YoungWithDiabetes.pdf
6.Rahman, M.A., Aziz Z., Acharya R.U., Tan P.H., Natarajan K., Ng E.Y.K, Law C., Subramaniam T., Wong Y.S. (2006). Analysis of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy. Innovations and Technology in Biology and Medicine (ITBM-RBM), France, 27(2), 46-55. Retrieved January 02, 2010, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science
7.The Ministry of Health (MOH), Singapore web site (http://www.moh.gov.sg/mohcorp/default.aspx)
8.The Podiatry Association of Singapore web site(http://www.podiatryassociationsingapore.com/)

Japan in the sixteenth Century: The World of tea. Discuss the Japanese Tea Ceremony with reference to the movie, “Rikyū”.

2010-12-10T15:58:00.004+08:00

According to historical records, tea was introduced to Japan from China during the Great Tang Dynasty (618-907) by Japanese Buddhist monks . It was during this time that cultural interchange reached its peak in Japan, resulting in her first centralized state headed by an Emperor (Tenno) and his court situated in Heian (794-1185) . The first mentioned of a formal ceremony involving the drinking of Tea was in the eighth century, when Emperor Shomu (724-749) invited Buddhist monks in extolling Tea’s elegance on its spiritual qualities in an event called incha. It was in the sixteenth century that a Tea master by the name of Sen No Rikyū (1522-1591) epitomized the fine art of Chanoyu. Chanoyu is a Japanese artistic ritual that is focused around preparing tea, serving tea, drinking tea, through aesthetic contemplation, social dimensions and spiritual exploration . Rikyū’s influence on wabicha (Chanoyu based on the wabi simplistic aesthetic) was profound. Totman (2000) interprets wabicha to mean “poverty tea” . Rikyū was essentially a man of the Azuchi-Momoyama (1568-1600) culture, who carried tea ceremony to its austere limits. Varley (1989) asserts that Rikyū created Chanoyu through the refinement of Chinese custom of drinking tea, and distilled with elements of Zen philosophy, which gave it various symbols and rituals . The view presented in this essay is that how Rikyū or the Way of Tea (Chanoyu) contributed in terms of its historical significance to the world in general and Japan in particular? Personal-psychological, aesthetic-religious and social-political-economic and health aspects will be correlated in terms of its historical significance in relation with the movie Rikyū.

Firstly, Chanoyu contributed significantly to personal-psychological aspects. It is thought by some experts, for example, Okakura (2007) that Chanoyu seeks social harmony not merely through aesthetic contemplation, but through self-discipline and personal discovery which disagree with Pitelka’s (2003) argument regarding the focus of Chanoyu . The Way of Tea combines ritual's social agenda with a personal desire for salvation. Tea requires a degree of contemplation of, and concentration on, fine ritual actions. Chanoyu invites participant to look into themselves to discover a self that is no longer separate and potentially antagonistic but in harmony with nature and people surrounding it . In addition, Tea was seen as an object to touch order behind chaos, as experienced in war and natural disasters in anarchy Japan. Anderson (1991) refers to the four famous principles of Chanoyu (wa or "harmony", kei or "respect", sei or "purity", and jaku or "tranquillity") as the "major mediators between the transcendent, the cultural system, Tea ritual, and the individual" and relates them to Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, and Buddhism respectively . She sees the first three as confirmatory and the last as transformatory. Chanoyu is also definitely “to build one’s personality and character ", and the most revered Tea master of past history Sen Rikyu is quoted as saying, "The most important purpose of tea...is...to arrive at spiritual enlightenment " or, in another translation, "Chanoyu is above all a matter of practicing and realizing the way in accord with the Buddha’s teaching ". With the combined principles of Tea inculcated, personal-psychological aspect of an individual might be personify as the way of Tea.

In addition, Chanoyu significantly heightens religious aesthetic. Chanoyu draws much of its fine aesthetics from its Zen Buddhism origin. As was explained earlier, Chanoyu had and still have social dimension, its ritual aesthetics aims at emotionally united diverse people under a homogeneous cultural model. Chanoyu had indeed achieved a common culture shared by all Japanese through universal emotional participation. It was undeniable that Chanoyu was sacred on its own because it was confined to a sanctified, ritual space . To an outsider, Chanoyu is just a physical act of drinking Tea. However, Chanoyu is actually a spiritual art by itself. A Zen priest and ostensibly the father of Tea ceremony called Murata Shuko (1422-1502) claimed that the purity of mind, rather than an outward appearance of cleanliness, should be observed at all times . The opinion of Ludwig (1981) is that in relations between the host and his guests, self control and consideration should be maintained, and a person of a lower social status should be given the same degree of respect as one who comes from a high social level . During Rikyu’s lifetime, he exulted in preserving the purity and simplicity of Chanoyu. Having a close infinity with Zen philosophy, the simplicity and purity of Chanoyu helped to mould the rules and ritual in the development of aesthetic grandeur . In my opinion, although there is a close relationship between ethics of Zen Buddhism and Chanoyu, they differ in the following manner: while Zen calls for enlightenment of the individual through meditation and detachment, Chanoyu is a fine art in which people communicate with each other through sincerity in spirit and purity of mind thus making Chanoyu a historical significant.

Apart from its psychological and aesthetic historical significant, Chanoyu has social, political and economic dimensions as well. Chanoyu has been a tool of peace and agreement, as well as of social order. Being in such turmoil times of Japanese history, Chanoyu had to become such a highly refined ritual art in order to have some forms of symbolic relations with the outside world particularly Japan to get such esteemed respect. Turner (1967) maintains that ritual symbolized a larger cultural context by multifocal symbols that allow the individual periodically to readapt to the basic conditions and axiomatic values of human social life . For him, ritual is a kind of normative system. Geertz (1993) too understood ritual as such a system "... which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence..." As stated by Geertz (1993), the symbols of ritual create a common understanding of reality; ritual is a means to overcome the anxiety that life is meaningless and absurd . It associates reality with a cosmic order by means of symbols. Ritual makes life meaningful as it links up with a cosmic order and as it extends that order into reality.

Furthermore, Japanese used Tea for different purposes for different periods of their history. In each period, Tea was used to fulfil some immediate requirements - be it local or contemporary needs. Adapting itself constantly to new social, political and consequently cultural situations, Chanoyu still is a dynamic system much like ancient Shinto ritual. Looking at the transformation that Tea underwent, from its introduction to Japan at the end of the sixth century until today, we realize that Chanoyu is a ritual which, like other ritual, relates to reality in a multi-dimensional symbolic way.

Politically, during the warring states period (1467-1572), when the daimyō fought among each other for military or political supremacy, Chanoyu was used to create consensus and peace. On the other hand, in times of peace, say after the reunification of the nation in 1591 and the establishment of the Tokugawa Bafuku (shogunate) government in 1603, Chanoyu is a reaffirmation of social and political order. Tokugawa Bafuku (shogunate) saw Tea as a necessity in becoming an ideal sovereign and citizen. Chanoyu also served to restrict violent behaviour and to leave a door open for political discussions and social harmony within the elite communities themselves. This idea could be seen in the movie whereby Toyotomi Hideyoshi suggested that Chanoyu could provide a platform in winning over Lord Leyasu to conquer China together. In contrast, commoners saw Chanoyu as an ideal way for human communication and cultivating the human mind through ritual which was shown between Rikyū and Soji and between Rikyū and Abbot Kokei respectively in the movie . Therefore, the way Geertz (1993) interprets ritual is therefore particularly relevant to Tea, as Tea is a ritual/symbolic form of human interaction based on a macrocosmic, ideal order of things, reimposed onto reality . Chanoyu being a tool or ritual of peace created a ritual locus for the conquest of crisis. From the movie , Rikyū is definitely in the most strategic position to assert influence to both political policies and Toyotomi Hideyoshi but yet he focuses his full attention to the study and teachings of Chanoyu. If only he have taken the monumental leap in curbing Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s greed and madness, Hideyoshi won’t had brought about his own tragic greatness. Rikyū even lamented that he only cautioned Hideyoshi once and obfuscated about his idea on the conquest of China and Korea. On the other hand, without Tea, the destruction of the warring states period might have been much worse and perhaps Japan will not be unified.

Socially, Chanoyu was seen as a catalyst in encapsulating an archaic system of values and pattern of human encounter within a newly bureaucratized and unified Japan . Chanoyu was meant symbolically to perpetuate peace and compromise. In times of war, however, when Tea particularly flourished, leaders/ritualists sought strict human equality in the tearooms as shown in the movie . By inviting potential enemies to Tea, they tried to create harmony and consensus by breaking down social difference and by promoting equality and intimacy between host and guests. In the movie , Hideyoshi use of Tea did not stop at politics and diplomacy, it extended to his Tea masters who, like Tea itself, became political go-betweens. Furthermore, within Chanoyu’s sphere women are seen as equals to men even though Chanoyu is seen as a Bushi culture, whereby only men are considered to take part. In the movie , several scenes which showed that drinking from the same Tea bowl reaffirmed this concept of parity between higher and lower social class. Although, it is debatable on the exact reasons why Hideyoshi forced Rikyu into suicide soon after this event, it is possible that it was a conflict over the use of Tea as a mirror of the new social order that he tried to establish after he managed to unify the nation under his hegemony. With Rikyū's death, Tea changed from an egalitarian, transformatory ritual to a "confirmatory" one. Rikyū was a product of the warring states period whereas Furuta Oribe (1545-1615) and his successors were products of national unity. As ritual, Chanoyu had to adapt itself to these changes. Chanoyu also assumes a confirmatory function when members of a certain social class practice it in ways so as to affirm class belonging and allegiance . However, Chanoyu can assume both functions at the same time especially when it functions to initiate the individual into his social group or help a political leader to legitimize his authority. Chanoyu can be used to transform the individual in a religious or social context and to conform and reconfirm the status quo. Perhaps Rikyū failed to realize quickly enough that his period had come to an end and died tragically as a consequence.

Economically, Chanoyu in the sixteenth century Japan was of transformatory use when warlords such as Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582) and Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598) reunified the nation as seen in the movie . Many of the other daimyō of the sixteenth century became avid Tea enthusiasts. Many prided themselves of their fine collections of Tea bowls and other Tea utensils. Prized bowls and coveted tea room alcove paintings changed hands for astronomical sums of money. Tanaka (1973) explains that competition over tea objects was even the cause--or a contributing cause--of violence and military conflict . Ironically, it was precisely such material fixation and self- exaggeration that the practice of Chanoyu was supposed to help overcome. The structure organization of economic activities surrounding Chanoyu with its expensive utensils, extravagant tea houses and Japanese elites taking part in these sacred rituals leads it to have economic value . As a result, tea growing became economically important in Japan after the end of the Tokugawa Bafuku (Shogunate), for its trade potential. Chanoyu itself has an economic and historical dimension which attributed to Japan’s rich historical and a prosperous nation.

Last but not the least is the health benefits of Tea itself. Varley (1989) indicates that drinking tea counts as a significant constant in human exposure to disease transmitted through drinking water which affects the alimentary tract . Furthermore, Chanoyu provided a barrier against infection through boiling the water which kills most of the bacteria presence. Four to six centuries ago, Japan could not have survived without some sort of barrier against propagation of lethal epidemic through drinking water. However, with the introduction of drinking boiled water that was essentially made palatable by Tea was an essential prophylaxis against intestinal infection through drinking contaminated water . In the movie, Lord Leyasu was seen as someone who was not that healthy (coughing blood) which might be a gastrointestinal tract infection, in spite of this Tea provided that remedy in easing his pain . Furthermore, between 1300 and 1700, the spread of Tea drinking coincided with a doubling of population in Japan . The epidemiological consequences of drinking Tea were of course only partly responsible. For these changes, the epidemiological aspect of Tea was important, and its consequences ramified all through Japanese Society, even affecting the elegance and artistry of Chanoyu.

In conclusion, events in sixteenth-century Japan and beyond revealed the fact that the historical significance of Chanoyu evolves and revolves with time that contributed significantly to the personal-psychological, aesthetic-religious and social-political-economic-well being of Japan.

Bibliography
1.Anderson, Jennifer Lea. An introduction to Japanese tea ritual. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1991. GT2910And
2.Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. South London: Fontana Press, 1993.
3.Okakura, Kakuzo. The Book of Tea. Berkeley, California: Stone Bridge Classics; Enfield: Publishers Group UK [distributor], 2007. GT2910Oka2006
4.Ludwig, Theodore M. Before Rikyū Religious and Aesthetic Influences in the Early History of the Tea Ceremony. Mocumenta Nipponica, Vol. 36, No. 4, (1981) pp. 367-390. Retrieved September 26, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2384225
5.Pitelka, Morgan. Japanese tea culture: art, history, and practice. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. GT2910Jap2003
6.Sen Soshitsu (translated by V.Dixon Morris). The Japanese way of tea: from its origins in China to Sen Rikyū. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1998. TX415Sen
7.Sosnoski, Daniel. Introduction to Japanese culture. Rutland: Charles E. Tuttle, 1996. DS821Inr
8.Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. Zen Buddhism and its influence on Japanese culture. New York: Pantheon Books, 1938. BL1442Zen.S
9.Tanaka, Sen’o, et al. The Tea Ceremony. Tokyo, New York, Kodansha International, 1973. GT2910Tan
10.Tanigawa, Tetsuzo. Four elements of tea. Chanoyu Quarterly, Tokyo: Tankosha Publishing Company, 1976.
11.Teshigahara, Hiroshi (Director). Rikyū [Video] USA: Capitol Films, 1989. CVC CLD228 135 mins. Retrieved September 26, 2009, from HY2208’s Multimedia - Integrated Virtual Learning Environment(IVLE), NUS
12.Totman, Conrad. A history of Japan. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2000. DS835Tot
13.Turner, Victor W. The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual, Ithaca. New York: Corner University Press, 1967. GN657Nde.Tu
14.Varley, Paul et al. Tea in Japan: essays on the history of Chanoyu. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1989. GT2905Tea

The Hidden Power of the Artificial Heart

2010-12-09T01:55:00.005+08:00

Since ancient times, human have viewed the heart more than just a physical part of the body. It has been thought the seat of the soul, the source of emotion, and the centre of each individual existence. For many years throughout history, the human heart has been regarded as a forbidden organ too delicate and too crucial to withstand the rigor of surgery, thus doctors and medical researchers left the heart untouched. If you think again, what actually brought about the creation of an artificial heart? In my point of view, heart disease have been pointed out as the number one killer in our modern civilization thus making heart disease so severe that the patient may not survive to wait for a donor heart. According to the American heart association, there are an estimated number of 1600 to 40,000 recipients who require a permanent cardiac replacement but unfortunately only 24,000 are available for transplant. Even so the mismatch for blood type, donor heart and potential recipients provides the need for long term alternative. Thus the creation of artificial heart started to develop. If it were to be perfected, it would enable thousands of human lives to be saved. Although there are other electronics devices related to heart failure such as defibrillators, pacemakers and many more cardiac support systems that can be use. This cardiac technology is used temporary on the patient so as to keep them alive until a heart becomes available. The newest inventions of an artificial heart are Abicor a Bi-Ventricular support system and Jarvik 2000(New generation of Jarvik 7).

But what is actually an artificial heart? According to an encyclopedia, the definition of an artificial heart is a mechanical heart which focused on mimicking the natural physiological heart system. Adult human hearts weight approximately around 300-350g and occupy around 300 cm2 of the thoracic cavity. There are four cardiac chambers that are separated by valves, dividing the heart into left and right halves. Under resting conditions, the heart pumps approximately 2.5 litres of blood in approximately 1-2.3 minutes.

According to a research by the National Heart Institute (NHI) in the states, there are several specific criteria for the successful application of a fully artificial heart. Firstly, there must be an adequate volume of blood to meet the physiological needs of the recipient. Secondly, the heart must be properly automatically functioning. In addition, complication such as thrombosis and infection should be avoided directly or indirectly. Lastly the durability of the device function should be considered too.

As well as design criteria, the selection of acceptable material to create this artificial heart is a challenge too. In order to reduce complication while providing durability to device function, the material chosen must be an elastomer so it can be flexible during pumping process. It should also not show any mechanical problem over the device life span in the recipient. The material surface should be acceptably low propensity to prevent thrombosis formation as well as the possible blood compatibility. The material should not Be prone to calcification. The material chosen should be able to form into any complex shape. Impervious to water and water vapour is another factor to consider so as preventing moisture from entering the motor housing. Well the cost of the material is not considered because the quality of the material is detrimental to the life of the recipient, thus cost is unimportant.

As all the design criteria are listed out, the current material available is another thing. Polymer is considered the most promising material around. They can select to a certain characteristic of mechanical resistance, degradability, permeability, solubility, transparency. Poly can be synthesized to have specific chemical, physical and interfacial characteristics. By preparing them in different components, they lead to a variety of properties and structure as compared to other materials. Well in this case of creating an artificial heart, polyurethane is preferred because of its optimal mechanical properties to withstand rigorous vibrational strain. This polymer includes properties such as good elasticity allowing high flexibility of 5.9MPa. It also have an elongation of 850% before breakage, thus it exceeds the amount of elongation necessary to withstand the vibrational cycles. Polyurethane have a low level of water absorption of 1.5%, thus ensures water will not seep into the motor housing. Finally the tensile strength of 41MPa far exceeds the strength requirement.

As the human body’s acceptance to it is highly complex, most polymers have a tendency to form surface thrombosis thus biocompatibility is an issue. Furthermore, segmented polymer urethanes tend to degrade due to environmental stress cracking. In addition, it appears to be relatively permeable to water and water vapour which could result complication in contaminating the motor thus may cause the motor to defunct. The traditional polyether urethanes cannot meet the rigorous requirement of the fully artificial heart. The most major problem is bacterial infection. This is cause by the protein layer mostly of fibrin, resulting from the polymerization of fibrinogen, a process activated by the biomaterial’s surface. Therefore, bacteria can be easy attached to the material and cause infection. Choosing a material that could minimize bacterial infection and limiting protein adsorption is the key here. One such way is to choose a material which is hydrophilic allowing the absorption of water. This characteristic hinders the protein-surface interaction and protein absorption on the surface. By distrupting the absorption of proteins, this causes the material to develop less protein layer thus less likely promoting the growth of bacterial and infection.

As I has stated earlier, the most common material of a total artificial heart is polyether-based polyurethane. However this material cause many drawbacks thus the pursuits of finding a new material is essential. Unfortunately, scientists have been unable to find a suitable substitute which has such mechanical properties as well as relative biocompatibility. Therefore, scientist started to change and improve the characteristic of polyurethane. One possible solution is to synthesize a polymer consisting of polyurethane along with a phospholipids polymer. Research shown that by combining this two polymers together it created a 2-methacryloyloxethyl phosphorylcholine (PMEH) with Segmented polyurethane. These alloys show a significant decrease in protein at the blood interface of about 17% only. Well these alloys certainly restrict the onset of thrombosis. Thus after careful consideration, scientists has shown that although the segmented polyurethane is not a better choice but by enhancing its biocompatibility with phospholipids polymers to form 2-methacryloyloxethyl phosphorylcholine (PMEH). This synthesis polymer shows that it prevents bacterial infection and thrombosis. Although by improving its biocompatibility characteristics, it still maintains its electrometric mechanical properties which are necessary for the rigorous pumping cycle.

Since we had find out what is the design criteria of an artificial heart. Let now look into the evolution of artificial heart technology. In 1958, the first implantable artificial heart was created. Although it is not ready to be implanted in human being, the Dutch-born physician Drs Willem Kolff and a Japanese physician Tetsuzo Akutsu planted this polyvinyl chloride device in a Japanese dog which in turn sustained it for 90 minutes. In 1965, the same medical doctor Drs Willem Kolff started to develop another artificial heart. This time he and his team use silicon rubber. The artificial heart is then being implanted in a calf but it died soon after about 3 days. But after 4 years of trial and error on identifying the problem that occurred, the first artificial heart which is to be implanted in a human being emerged. This 1969 artificial heart is design by Dr Domingo Liotta. The recipient of this heart survived for almost 3 days with it and 36 hours more with a transplanted heart (natural heart) before he dies. Physicians and scientists then began to consider the possibility of creating a permanent, rather than temporary, implanted artificial heart. A more in-depth research on artificial heart brought about the development of jarvik-7 which were design and develop by a team medical doctors which were led by Robert Javik, Donald Olsen and Drs Willem Kolff in 1982. Jarvik 7 permanent design was the first for its kind. Nearly twenty years after the first mechanical heart is created, a new generation of smaller, more efficient mechanical implants emerges. They are Abicor a Bi-Ventricular support system and a similar next generation of jarvik-7 called the Jarvik 2000 was invented.

Through recent years, nobody has talked about the artificial heart after Washington dentist Barney Clark took 112 miserable days to die after being fitted with the Jarvik 7 mechanical heart back in 1982. The suffering included convulsion, thrombosis, kidney failure and respiratory problems and a finally a multi-organ failure. Back then, the New York new times even nicknamed this horrific artificial heart research as “Dracula of medical technology”. In the year 1982, Jarvik 7 was the only artificial heart available that is worthy on being tested on human being. Robert Jarvik called the artificial heart the Jarvik 7 after himself. Made of Dacron polyester, plastic and aluminum, that Jarvik 7 has an internal power system that regulated the pump through a system of compressed air hoses that entered the heart through the chest. The air hoses were connected to the chambers. The internal power system drives the pumps, which pumped the blood through the patient body. Jarvik and his team tested the device on cows and other animals, making sure the heart could consistently beat at least 100,000 times a day. Soon, it was ready to be tested on a human being. Thus a Washington dentist Barney Clark is being made the guinea pig in this medical research. After years of medical advancement, dozen of company and cardiac research centers have been working on an artificial heart that is relatively smaller and safer than Jarvik 7.

In Danvers, a state in the United States of America, A biotechnology company called Abiomed Inc works together with Harvard surgeon Gus Vlahakes to recreate a new generation artificial heart which is completely implantable about the size of a grapefruit. But in the first place why should they take the trouble to recreate such devices which were considered “evil” in the medical arena. Well the answer is simple; the need for such devices is crystal clear. This artificial heart helps to extend the life of a person before a donor heart is available.

Thanks to the advancement of medical technology in Microprocessors, Biomaterials, Batteries and Motor over the past 21 years. Designers in artificial heart have face out the many problems with Jarvik 7. What do you think is the problem with Jarvik 7 that need to be solved? The biggest problem is actually the patient had to tied to an external wind machine and have large hoses piercing the chest thus causing infection in the process. Secondly, the internal design is not smooth thus blood clots could occur. Back in the 80’s, microprocessors is not used thus Jarvik 7 cannot adjust the blood flow to meet the physiological needs of the recipient relatively speaking. In those day rechargeable batteries in not used thus the patient is to be constantly attached to an external electrical source.

After an intensive research, Cardiologist has found ways to keep the invasive medical procedure to the minimum. The Abiomed’s Abicor uses an external energy system which transfer energy to a transduction device attached at the torso. This device transmits power to the internal battery across the skin without any incisions. It also has an internal controller and the electronics system regulates the pumping speed of the heart based on the physiological need of the patient which acts like a microprocessor. It looks like a sphere within a sphere, with the inner ball scuttling back and forth. The external battery which is about the size of a pager is being placed at the wrist of the recipient. Internally in the recipient’s body, there is a rechargeable internal battery which continually recharged from an external battery pack and provides up to unlimited hours of operation.

As the Abiocor heart itself, it is designed to move blood through the lungs and to the rest of the body, stimulating the rhythm of a heart beat. It is about the size of a grapefruit and includes two artificial ventricles with valves and a motor driven hydraulic pumping system. In general the Abiocor looks like a new age artificial heart because the shape and material used is very futuristic and much smaller than an artificial heart usually is. On the other hand, the Jarvik 2000, it runs power through a fixed jack implanted behind the patient’s ear. The internal and external batteries use is lithium like those in had phone which could have slashed the time that a patient has to be hook to an electrical source.

The Jarvik 2000 by contrast uses a miniature rotary pump to replace the left ventricle only which is call a flowmaker that boost the left side of the heart so as to help the natural heart to recover. The biggest different between Jarvik 2000 and Abiomed’s Abiocor is that Abiocor heart take over the whole function of the left ventricle but Jarvik 2000 took only part of the left ventricle work by having a booster pump installed which allow the heart to recover on its own.
Even so, this lab full of highly specialized technicians and physician would seem to ensure success. In the end the first recipient of Abiocor Robert Tools, the first patient to receive an Abiocor heart, lived only 151 days. The individual that received the fourth implant, who according to his family’s wishes, never has been identified to the public, survived only 56 days. Recently, Tom Christerson aged 71 died on Friday, 7th February 2003 after nearly 17 months with the plastic-and-titanium device pumping in his chest.

Well all in all, although millions of dollars, hundred of highly educated medical researchers and countless hours of works is being put into making the perfect artificial heart. It could only extend life only a hundred days or so. Could it be that we had not gave god enough credit for his ability to design and create the amazing human body. Even though man-made artificial heart may hold an array of hope and promise that cardiac patient could live a few more years, but for now I still cling to the heart that god made in the beginning. In considering the full impact of artificial heart on society, we must not narrow our thinking to include only the beneficial possibilities. There exist moral, ethical and economics factors that accompany this new innovation to humanity.

Tragic Greatness vs. Tragic Beauty

2010-11-23T02:13:00.005+08:00

Introduction

When he ascended the Dragon throne in 712 AD , China reached its epitome of organizational steadiness, economics boom, military expansion and cultural splendor. After the An Shi rebellion , China becomes disorganized - political erosions was rampant, economic adversity amplify and suffering of its people were unprecedented. Never did future dynastic cycles return to such glorious state ever again.
Due to the vast historical significance of this calamity, this essay includes who are the three main characters? Where are they originated from? Why and how they contributed in the events leading to the rebellion? What was the fundamental cause of the rebellion? How does the past see these historical events? Last but not the least, what resulted in the rise of An Lushan and its implication to future dynastic cycles?

The Veritable Son of Heaven

Personifying the climax of the Tang’s influence, Emperor Xuanzong, the seventh emperor of Tang dynasty is one of the most significant monarchies in ancient China (712-756). His personal name is Li Longji , and posthumously known as Ming Huang . When Xuanzong is a child, the imperial court was in total anarchy - favourism, nepotism and cronyism were out of control. The imperial power had been transferred from incompetent emperors to their female counterparts since the reign of Gaozong , Zhongzong and Ruizong . When he became the son of heaven, he restored economic prosperity, strengthen military expansion and maintain peace. Aside from that, cultural flourished with the establishment of Hanlin Academy which is conducive and harmoniously blend in promoting moralistic Confucianism, naturalistic Taoism and the assimilation of ideas which in turn influence academia, artiste, painters and poets to burgeon artistic brilliance. Into the bargain, foreigners are well integrated into the Tang Society since Emperor Taizong era . After the demotion of Empress Wang and followed by the death of Consort Wu , he began to lose interest in politics, thus rely on obsequious advisers and ingratiating palace eunuchs. As a result administration was disregard , military establishment deterioration and border relations declined . A man of such great caliber during his prime in the Kaiyuan era (713-741) was marked by continuous peace and prosperity, but despondently only to lose it all in old age partly for the love of a woman during the Tianbao period (742-756).

Precious Consort Yang

In 745, he began to take interest on the wife of Prince Shou called Yang Yuhuan. As she is being blessed with the physical attributes of a woman at such young age , Xuanzong couldn’t help but notice her presence. He knew the imperialistic repercussion if he openly took the wife of his son. He therefore enforces the nullification of her marriage with Prince Shou and make Yang’s divorce her own husband to become a nun . She is probably sixteen or seventeen years old . This unorthodox method had been previously used by his ancestry to gain status and power. When she was assimilated into the palace ground, she is known as T’ai Chen , soon after she was conferred the rank of “precious consort ”. Her new rank of Guifei was the highest among the harem and next to that of the empress. She probably did not view her situation as immoral rather raising her nobility status. Furthermore, the emperor needs her as much as she needed the emperor. In addition, her clan and family see this as an opportunity to further alleviate her clan reputation and secure high ranking appointment due to her influence with the emperor. Since she is the emperor’s favorite consort and the empress relegated, she is the most powerful woman in the imperial harem. Due to her bearing, she convinced Xuanzong to appoint her family’s member to some of the highest imperial post. Her cousin, Yang Guozhong became the chief minister after the death of Li Linfu , her sisters was assimilated in various states as consorts or concubine. As a result, this leads to the totalitarian control of the Yang Clan in imperial politics through political conspiracy.

The Barbarian General

As the son of heaven focused his entire attention on a woman and artistic pleasure, the imperial power began to be monopolized by the Yang Family and control of the frontier armies shifted into the hand of foreign generals of questionable. An Lushan a fat and crude General who was born of a Turkic mother and a Sogdian father came into power. His close friendship with Lady Yang and the emperor provided great prospect for him as they thought he is just a simpleton. In 751, she adopted An Lushan as a son, thus providing greater autonomy in getting into the emperor and lady yang’s good books. With this, he was given greater military control of up to forty percent of the total Tang’s military capabilities after winning numerous military campaigns in the Northern steppes . On the other hand, Yang Guozhong became prime minister after the death of Li Linfu. Due to An Lushan gaining favour and trust from the couple, Yang Guozhong becomes suspicious of a non-Chinese Military Leader. Within the empire, internal conflicts set in – Yang Guozhong is trying to destroy Lushan as he might be a threat to the Yang’s sphere of interest and influence the Yang’s circle of power, Crown Prince Suzong wasn’t a supporter to him either and loyal opposition general of Tang, General Goshu Han is a threat to Lushan’s military control and might. Most probably, his real attention wasn’t about to eradicate the emperor or about his desire for Yang Guifei but about power and staying in control. The emperor has lived far too long for his own good and would eventually kick the bucket, Chancellor Yang Guozhong is suspicious about him, the crown prince is not in his favor and Tang loyal general is a hindrance to his military expansion; where would that leave An Lushan? If only Li Linfu was still alive perhaps history will take a different turn of event however that is not the case, thus rebellion was the only answer.

An Lu-Shan Rebellion

In 755, the deflected armies led by Lushan and Shi Siming marched south towards Chang’an with the intention to overthrow the emperor and instate himself as Emperor of the newly created Yan Dynasty . Possibly, the army wasn’t deflecting but was utterly convinced by An Lu Shan that the mutiny was suppose to aid the emperor in subduing the incitement to rebellion faction led by Yang Guozhong. I would call this as the lie that worked. Due to this event, Xuanzong recalled the army at its borders. While doing so, he ordered the imperial army to confront An Lushan’s overpowering armies at the Yellow river but was subdued due to an ambush of the Yan armies. Tang Loyalist General Geshu Han went to the emperor’s aid but was also defeated at Tong Guan by another Yan general, Cui Qianyou . With the fall of Tong Guan, the collapse of capital city Chang’an was apparent and inevitable as it is directly connected with the defense of Tong Guan. Due to this negative dominoes effect of Tang Defense, Tang disintegrates

Exodus of the imperial family

Knowing that the uprising is foreseeable, the imperial family fled from the capital to Chengdu, the capital of Jiangnan Circuit . Upon arriving at Mawei station, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), the army started to become rebellious and mutiny occurs unless an ultimatum is reached. The army was convinced that the An Shi rebellion was caused by the Yang’s family and nothing else that brings the once great Tang to its knees. Soon Yang Guozhong was brutally murdered. Being resolute, they demanded the death of the precious consort as well. General Chen Xuanli , approached the son of heaven, saying “As Guozhong has been executed of his betrayal, is it appropriate for his sister, the imperial concubine also be eliminated?” Although Ming Huang was pleased with the armies for showing loyalty at such testing time, he was reluctantly to say no to their demand. However his loyal eunuch, Gao Lishi advised the emperor that the outcome of the safety your majesty and the survival of Tang depends by appeasing the troop’s resentment, only then he will be able to find peace and security. Although Xuanzong tried to convince them that Yang Guifei had nothing to do with his brother’s treachery since she is always leading a bohemian type of life and to do such a foolish thing will only jeopardize her status and standard of living. However, none was convinced. He had no choice but ordered his trusted eunuch, Gao Lishi to reveal her fate. At the age of thirty-eight years old, she was executed by being strangled by the neck till the last flicker of life extinguished from her eyes.

With the fall of Chang’an, General Lushan declared himself as emperor of the newly established Yan dynasty in Loyang. The Confucian ideal had labeled all non-Chinese as barbarian and inferior . But now a barbarian was the most powerful man in china. Maybe Confucius had been right not to trust outsiders. As for emperor Xuanzong, he abdicated and self exiled to Sichuan as Taishang Huang and relinquished his power to his son, Suzong . His inconsolable sadness and longing for Yang Guifei was immortalized in a poem called “A song of Unending sorrow .”

Discussion

The fragmentation of Tang’s Golden age could be divided into three aspects – military, political, economics and social.

Lu Shan took advantage of his position as a resolute military commander of Pinglu Army which headquartered in modern Chaoyang, Liaoning. This remote location prevented a direct control of the Central government. The military policy called the fubing system was backfired when it was first adopted to create large armies under a single unified commander to guard the frontier, so as to prevent or lessened the threat of a military coup. This resulted in the consolidation of power that leads to uncheck cancerous growth of military influence. This system created a probable unhappiness and demoralized among the soldiers with the prolong warfare with the frontiers. Since this policy goes hand in hand with its agriculture production, the prolong wars which hampered the cultivation of land based products which angered the peasants. Almost all of Tang Generals are of barbarian lineage, this resulted in a competitive environment in order to win the emperor’s favour thus lying and flattery are common in such unquestionable scenarios.

Within Chinese governing body, a conflict of interest causes a power struggle between meritocracy and preferential treatment officials. As the Yang clan was assimilated into Imperial politics, the usage of the imperial examination seems to be useless in order to sought promotion. In addition, Xuanzong only function to become the son of heaven is perhaps to pursue his idealistic dream of the cultivation of arts and culture and nothing else. His foresight and energy are being clouded and channeled wrongly in pursuits for power, pleasure and brilliance. An aging emperor resulted in a probable deterioration of health which in turn caused him to have lesser involvement in politics and consequently bring about the erosion of emperor legitimacy. Yang Guifei indirectly influence him in affecting his role as the son of heaven. Xuanzong in fact didn’t learn his lesson from previous dynasties in which women had brought about the tragedy of the whole nation . This is further emphasized by Confucius in his analects in Chapter 16 verse 7 . The deliberate policy suggested by Li Linfu of using non-Chinese as military governor on the basis that they were better soldier and have no political or faction connection, that bring about such catastrophic consequences. Although the involvement of eunuch in political involvement was very minimal initially but Xuanzong’s lenient policy towards his subjects resulted in undue influence of eunuchs in the late Tang Dynasty . The dictatorship of Li Linfu is the product of diverging sets of interests within the imperial politics. To make matter worse, the rise of Yang Guozhong causes the imperial politics to be in total disarray as he lacks the administrative rigor, practicing unorthodox ways to govern the Tang Dynasty.
The onset of economic policies brought about unity and peace between north and South China. Due to this economic stability, large scale immigration occurs from all of the world into Tang China resulted in different race, culture and languages intermingling with each other. This effect bolsters a ridge of economic instability between the rich and the poor by the onset of the so called “runaway households” or “immigrant households”. The constant war between Tang, Tibet and Nanchao resulted in large financial burden to its state treasury. Furthermore economic policies implemented by Li Linfu and the establishment of the Tang Hanlin Academy might cause great fiscal fluctuation which causes much financial depression between the rich and the poor.

Conclusion

Although the rebellion was subdued, the once great Tang dynasty declines as administration was overlook, military establishment began to be lenient owing to the laidback training and preparation during peacetime and border relations depreciated. The Tang culture would never return to its past glory. China began to resume its traditional old policy of non-intervention and rejecting non-Chinese ideas and values and regressed to its conventional Confucian ideology as seen during the Song Period. The onset of the rebellion is not solely caused by a woman but the involvement of many external and internal factors which contributes in the disintegrating force of the nation. A man of Confucian renaissance of good hindsight in enabling China to reach its Golden age, tenacious objective in bringing peace and prosperity, resolute force and advocator of the arts and culture won his way into the confused and anarchy situation during his youth. However his foresight and energy was confuse and focus by pretentious dreams of military glory than his forefathers, basking in earth pleasures and increasing age which precipitated the catastrophic downfall of the once Great Tang. The An Lushan rebellion has ended the love affair between a romantic emperor and his consort along with it the Golden age of Tang which steadily split up into a number of independent states in the so called five dynasties period.

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[14]Howard S. Levy, “Biography of An Lu-Shan.”, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1960
[15]Howard S. Levy, “The Career of Yang Kuei-fei” 楊妃貴, T'oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 45, Livr. 4/5 (1957), pp. 451-489, published by: Brill.
[16]Howard S. Levy, “The Selection of Yang Kuei-fei”, Oriens, Vol. 15, (Dec. 31, 1962), pp. 411-424, Published by: Brill.
[17]Ellen Johnston Laing. “Chinese Palace-Style Poetry and the Depiction of a Palace Beauty”, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 72, No. 2 (Jun., 1990), pp. 284-295, Published by: College Art Association.
[18]Owen Elizabeth Marie, “Love lost: Qian Xuan (c 1235-c307) and Images of Emperor Ming Huang and Yang Guifei.” UMI Microform 3194692, 2006.
[19]Kroll, Paul W. “The Flight from the Capital and the Death of Precious Consort Yang.” Tang Studies No. 3. Madison Wisconsin: Tang Studies Society, 1985
[20]Dallas Petersen, “A Tale of Desire and Deceit.” Thetean 33 2004, pp. 991-1009
[21]Howard S. Levy, “Harem favorites of an illustrious celestial: A series of essays on the outstanding women of the Tang who lived during the reign of Emperor Hsuan-Tsung (712-756), describing the effect they had on Dynastic History.”
Publisher by: Taiwan, Lin Yün-pe̓ng, 1958
[22]Paul W.Kroll, “Nostalgia and History in Mid-Ninth-Century Verse: Cheng Yu’s Poem on “The Chin-Yang Gate.”” T'oung Pao, Volume 89, Numbers 4-5, 2003, pp. 286-366(81),Publisher by: BRILL
[23]Masako Nakagawa Graham, “The Consort and the Warrior. Yokihi Monogatari.” Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Spring, 1990), pp. 1-26, Published by: Sophia University

The Role of Chinese Imperial Eunuchs

2010-11-20T02:07:00.002+08:00

Since ancient civilisation starts to take shape, eunuchs have been influencing and moulding China’s civilisation which rose and fell; dynasty were built, and they collapsed and that virtually nothing is left of them at the present time except ruins and scattered remains. Down through china’s dynastic past, although they are seen as structuring domestic and foreign affairs, it is not always a positive sign rather in historical books they are assumed to be power seizer, devious, manipulative and utterly damaging. This class of testicle-less men are considered to be one of the most influential in the pinnacle of Chinese culture and power. With this, it indicates how deeply rooted is such barbaric clan is assimilated in Chinese way of life that allowed emasculated males to serve the imperial ruling class.

Due to the vast historical significance of eunuchism in imperial china, nothing concrete is known or written about them. Who are considered eunuchs? Where does this uncivilised system originated? Why and how are they being emasculated? What was the fundamental use of eunuchs? How does time evolves the function of eunuchs? Last but not the least, what resulted in the rise of this queer class to power in such great cultured and humane society?

According to Chinese historical evidence, eunuchs are being personified as castrated males whose primary purpose is to help out in the household of the imperial family. There are relatively three types of imperial eunuchs – young, middle and senior in accordance to their age and seniority. The earliest mentioning of Chinese Imperial eunuch is ascertain during the Zhou Dynasty as written in oracle records. However this is debatable that sinologist found ancient artefacts that depicts Shang’s ruling class also uses eunuchs in their daily administrative and well being services which depicts such brilliant social class and somewhat philistine culture. In addition to that, castration during those times was seen as capital punishment. As results these emasculated males fluctuate were often integrate into ruling class as servants.

Originally, these genitals mutilated eunuchs were used as servants doing menial work within the palace compounds. As times passed, eunuchs possessed power and influence to the people and rulers alike. Eunuchs began to dictate emperors, be in charge and manipulate state affairs to their own advantage and caused the fall of some of China’s greatest dynasties. Indeed, some of these Eunuchs’ greed and madness had brought about the whole tragedy of a whole nation.
In the imperial palace, different class of eunuchs have a different set of organizational chart. All these eunuchs are supplied due to four reasons – Compulsion, poverty, choice and punishment.

The compulsions of eunuchs are usually young boys below the age of 10 are often bought over from their parents for the sake of money and the longing for a better and provided life. These young eunuchs are often employed as harem guardian for imperial consorts and concubines. Due to their pureness and free from immortal thoughts, they are assimilated into duties in bedroom and bathroom of the most intimate nature. As such these eunuchs are often favoured, thus making them close companions or pets to these imperial ladies. Eunuchs are seen as a perfect candidate because due to their bodily mutilation, they are considered unlikely candidate to usurp the throne or impregnate any ladies. As they get older, they are often posted to another department outside the ladies abode and replaced by younger eunuchs.
Eunuchs that are supplied due to poverty, choice and punishment are often middle aged. They see being a eunuch is like a dream come true for an honest livelihood free from begging and theft. The prospect of serving the ruling class provides good basis, accommodation, high prestige and a comfortable life for old age. Being a eunuch as a personal choice is often envied and desired by many due to its positive gains. The last reason is punishment, whereby rebellious or oppose individuals are often castrated and were allowed to serve the royal court as testaments and lessons to the people. They are often examined and stringent measures are taken for their truthfulness, personality and making sure they are free from ailments. Proper emasculation process and rigorous training are inculcated before they are absorbs into the palace grounds. They are often employed as outdoor as labour intensive labourers such as gardeners, water carrier, watchmen, chair bearer or some were employed indoor as doing boring and tedious work such as cooking, messenger or in short everything in the palace certainly prevent them from yielding into the residence of palace ladies.

The senior eunuchs are often seen as mentor or chief to the rest of his eunuch’s clan. These eunuchs are experienced, sweet talker and knowledgeable about imperial court politics thus employed as personal assistant, tutor, advisor and spies to the son of heaven and his family. These types of eunuchs are often wielded power and influence to the emperors and getting involved in Chinese political history because they castrated in their early puberty, brought into the palace, immersed in a life of imperial style and train into the way of the court. They are often acts as the ‘middle man’ between the emperors and officials. These eunuchs are often seen as a source for information, counsel and support for the emperors.

Some eunuchs are not entirely stationed in the imperial household, they are often ordered to become eunuch lama to attend spiritual service of the female convicts. Not only that, some were utilized as actors and singers in the ever widely held theatrical events.

Some well known eunuchs such as Sima Qian, Cai lun and Zheng He have contributed to the historical value of Chinese history, paper making and maritime expedition respectively in the Han and Ming dynasties. Some eunuchs have shown great loyalty to the emperor such as Eunuch Gao Lishi of the Tang Dynasty and Gang Bing of the Ming Dynasty. Gao Lishi have shown tremendous effort in helping emperor Xuanzong by removing emperor Xuanzong’s nemesis – the former empress Wei and princess Taiping, daughter of empress Wu Zetian and emperor Gaozong. Gang Bing is most notable in self castration to prevent political conspiracy of him having sexual contact with the concubine and showing upmost loyalty to emperor Yongle. Deeply impressed by his courage and loyalty, he was given a politically powerful position within the palace. Even after his death, he was glorified and an ancestral hall was built in his honour known as the “eunuch’s temple”.

Although most of its loyal and upright eunuchs have brought a greater good to their master, dynastic cycles, and contributes immensely to the society. However these were far and often very few as I will elaborate. In the Chinese history, the institution of eunuchism has brought detrimental effect on its civilization, people and ruling class. Usually those senior eunuchs who have consolidated power and influence in the imperial palace were held responsible for many of the dynasties’ failings. Their constant presence among the ruling class makes them in a position of high restricted and highly confidential information which could be used as personal gains or manipulates inner palace affairs to suit their own needs. As a result of this, many tried to take the opportunities to gain wealth, power and status. In addition to that, they are able to understand temperament of the rulers well enough since they watched them born and grow. Due to the close bond they shared, advices are often take into consideration especially young emperors ascended the throne that prefers fun and games to the state affairs, thus these eunuchs are often manipulating state affairs. Even the most senior officials are powerless against the bad eunuchs. These perpetuate a vicious cycle in the palace environment which can be seen through out china’s dynastic era.

Throughout China’s dynastic cycle from the Zhou to the Qing dynasties are involved with powerful eunuchs who are usurping power, wealth fanatics or just plain dominance. In the early Zhou dynasty, a eunuch named Kuo-Chi manipulates the decree of emperor chin hsien kung by informing the prince about the emperor planned to slay him, thus allowing the prince to escape. In the Qin dynasty, eunuch Zhao Gao colluded with minister Li Ssu in forging the imperial decree resulted in the death of the crown prince, Fu Su and able general, Mien tien. Eunuch Zhao Gao went to absurd extremes in purging and Li Ssu and causes the death of Emperor Er Shi. With that putting the entire empire into disarray and much of its collapse are caused by Eunuch Zhao Gao dubious ways. In the Western Han dynasty, Emperor Wu Ti has a eunuch sorcerer by the named of Luan Ta. Luan Ta was given a lot of prestige, wealth and power however due to the fact that he dare to delude the son of heaven, he was put to death. In the years of later Han dynasty, a eunuch by the named of Zhang Rang who serve emperor ling was a leader who dominated the court with his accomplice; the ten attendants and resulted in the killing of many officials due to different views of how the emperor should govern. Their devious actions lead to unrest and anarchy in the years of the eastern Han and contributing to its downfall. He kills himself by jumping into the river and drowns himself. Even the barbaric northern Wei dynasty, a eunuch called Liu Teng came into the power by betraying others and collaborating with devious officials just to have its aim achieved. With his mastery in flattery and always pleasing Empress dowager Hu, he eradicate empress dowager Hu’s darling who is known as an upright leader Yuan Yi, Prince of Qinghe with the help of Yuan Cha, Prince of Jiangyang. At Sixty years old, he kicked the bucket. After his death, empress dowager Hu once again gained power and commanded that Yuan Cha to commit suicide and ordered Liu Teng’s dead body to be dig up and thrown as a form of disrespect and instructed that his adopted son to be put to be brutality killed. In the golden age of china, another well known eunuch by the named of Li Fuguo appears during the reign of Emperor Suzong. He supported emperor Suzong in ascending the throne by staging the Anshi rebellion. He collaborated with Emperor Suzong’s wife empress Zhang through his good flattery skills. However as he grew powerful and emperor Suzong died, he killed the empress and gain control of the administration. He was removed from power and annihilated during the reign of Emperor’s Daizong. Next in the northern song dynasty, a powerful military eunuch called Tong guan gained power and wealth with the rising of emperor Huizong support. The unavoidable outcome of his mad ambition to form alliance with the Jurchens (later called Manchu) in order to crush the Liao and Jin armies proves fatal. He accelerates the collapse of Song and brought about the rise of the Yuan Dynasty. In the Ming dynasty another famous eunuch in china’s history by the named of Liu Jin gained trust and power after Prince Zhu Houzhao (Emperor Zhengde) that he took care of ascended the throne. He manipulates and misled the emperor resulting in the eradication of 56 upright officials. This caused the Ming dynasty to be in total disarray and corruption. Last but not the least is the Qing Dynasty whereby eunuch Li Lianying accumulated wealth and power during the reign of Empress Dowager Cixi. As her favourite eunuchs, he often dominated imperial politics, instigates court official and became an actual leader after the death of Empress Dowager Cixi with emperor Puyi as regent. He died in 1912, leaving behind lots of wealth and known to be a millionaire upon his death.

Although the eunuch system was fundamentally entranced in imperial china’s past, the bad advice given to the son of heaven had not been taught lofty ideals or to consider long term views of the state or the greater good of the community over self. In comparison, officials who were corrupt were worse in testifying the downfall of empires without having eunuchs in it. However we must not put aside the fact that eunuchs did played a vital role in shaping and moulding the shape of china’s ancient civilization.

Research Proposal on Chinese Literature

2010-11-19T23:11:00.003+08:00

I.Proposed Research Topic: Comparative perception of Women in Chinese literature

II.Purpose(s): This research proposal examines various modes of perception of women in Chinese literature in two periods – Yuanshou era during the reign of Emperor Han Wudi of Western Han Dynasty (122 BC – 117 BC) and Kaiyuan period during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang Dynasty (713 AD – 741 AD). Through a wide range of materials including poetry, fictions, essays and drama of these two eras, this research essay seeks to explore perspectives on issue relating to women such as how the image of women changed throughout Chinese history, what factors contributed to these changes and why women became a literary subject for Chinese society in Imperial China.

III.Significance of the research: Our group aims to see how gender equality has changed throughout Chinese imperial history. Furthermore, we aim to find historically the reasons on the paradigm shift of such changes through Chinese literatures.

IV.Background: Chinese literatures played an important part in defining a family and traditional women. The book of changes or Yi Jing illustrates the role of women and family during a Confucianistic dogma emphasized by the state. Submission seems to be main theme in glorifying and defining the ideal women in Chinese literature. As such, women are often seen as submissive, loyal and often look down upon. This act of suppression is completely undermining the function of women. Throughout life, women were subjected to the 三从四德 (San Cong Si De) or three submissions, which stipulated that she follows the wishes of her father, submitting herself to her husband and obeying her son. In contrast, the definition of women’s roles and family changed drastically during the Tang Dynasty. Confucian ideas were somewhat dismissed and women became equal. The idealization of Chinese women seems to change in terms of ideology between these two great dynasties. In conclusion we want to prove that this concept is not fixed or rigid but rather a process of synthesizing many factors which contributed to such transformation of perception on women in Chinese literatures.

V.Methodology: An in-depth analysis of various Chinese literatures will be conducted on our part, to identify the perception of women living during these periods. This empirical research will be guided generally by the interpretive perspective on our part which focuses on correlating these meanings and perspectives of writers that lived during the era mentioned above. Certainly, these meanings will be negotiated and discuss which resulted in different perceptions of women.

VI.Conclusion: We hope to disprove argument that Chinese civilizations do not undermine the gender equality. We also hope to get a moral understanding behind these didactic texts designed to show women how to behave, perception of women living in that era and literary works composed by or about women as key protagonists and antagonists varies throughout these two eras.

VII.References: Our sources will be divided into two – primary and secondary sources. In primary sources, biography, prose and translated ancient texts will be use when necessary. In secondary sources, books, journal articles and citation of reputable internet material will be used. Books and articles cited while doing the research will be listed in a bibliography at the end of the essay as shown below.

1.Chung Eva, Lau Joseph, S.M. Hegel, Robert E, Paradoxes of Traditional Chinese Literature (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press,1994) p. 263

2.Daniel Hsieh, Love and Women in Early Chinese Fiction (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, c2008) p. 331

3.Donald Holzman, Chinese Literature in Transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Aldershot, Great Britain; Brookfield, Vt., USA: Ashgate, 1998) p.189

4.Li Yu-Ning, Images of Women in Chinese Literature (Indianapolis, Indiana: University of Indianapolis Press, 1994) p. 222

5.Wendy Larson, Women and Writing in Modern China (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1998) p. 267

6.Zheng Enbo, Zheng Qiulei, Chinese Literature (Beijing: Culture and Art Publishing House, 1999) p. 191

The Analects of Confucius

2010-10-27T00:37:00.001+08:00

Discuss the concept of friend (友）
Confucius sees friendship as the only relationship, out of the 5 social relationships discussed in the Wu Lun, which is built on equality. The other 4 social relationships are involved with the preservation of China as a state-family or “Guojia”, and denote hierarchy which makes them binding relationships of commitment. In friendship, there is also a mutual obligatory bond of devotion towards one another.. . In chapter 2 verse 22 of the Analects, it says that man without trustworthiness would not be able to accomplish greater things. This suggests that friendship is certainly built on the basic principle of trust. According to the Analects, Chapter 16 verse 4, three types of friends are seen as beneficial. Firstly, friends who are upright, magnanimous and have principles in social moral, could provide you courage when you are flinching or help you to make decisive decision when you are hesitant, thus preventing you from going to a devious path. Secondly, tolerant and forgiving friends are also seen as worthy friends. Being tolerant and forgiving is a profound virtue whereby it is a kind of compassion born of genuine concern. For example, when a careless mistake is made or an injury is being inflicted by others to you, we should always forgive the other party because the impact of harsh approach and criticism will not be as lasting as tolerance and forgiveness. This act could enhance repentance thus supplement strength and spontaneous reflection on the other party on whether his action is right or wrong. Thirdly having a knowledgeable and well informed pal is valuable. During the pre-Qin period whereby mass media and written records are not that wide spread, making friend is essential. The book of knowledge and experience that a friend gained can become your knowledge and experience thus an exchange of learning process occurs. For example, if you happened to face a problem, get a friend to let him advised you based on his knowledge and experience so as to give you informed decision. He also clearly shared about values that one should possess in friendship, namely equality (Chapter 1 verse 8), respect (Chapter 5 verse 17), forgiveness (Chapter 5 verse 26) and faithfulness (chapter 23. verse ?) which are values that are essential in the concept of friend.

Based on Analects, what kind of person was Confucius? Describe your image of Confucius.
Through the Analects, he is seen as a law abiding, moral inculcating and will of heaven kind of person. He would most probably be a very well-mannered man who possesses a high moral standard and a strong sense of self-awareness. One of his goals through his teaching is to educate man to be a “Junzi”, a superior man. He noted down observations he saw, correcting himself to do what is right and influencing others to do likewise. In addition, he is a forgiving person who adopted a peaceful and soft approach to resolve conflict. He strongly believed teaching and counselling as the way to correct another’s behaviour and problem solving, as amplify in Chapter 2 verse 3. In the Analects, not once did he say that reprimanding would work. On the contrary, he believed that reproof causes relationship to distant.
On the hindsight, he was idealistic and one that seeks perfection in life because some verses in the Analects elaborated on how he should do things like eat, dress, talk and perhaps how he should portray himself are proofs of his self imposed rules which could provide explanations on why he is a quasi idealistic person. His humility is shown in chapter 5 verse 8, whereby he often accepted ideas from his students even when they are correcting him. In that analect, a man by the named of Yong asked him on his opinion about a man’s qualification as a ruler, and he gave a brief approval on it. As he went through the different walks of life, he constantly checked on himself, imposing rules and regulations upon himself to develop himself to be a Junzi. One of his distinguished qualities is the passion to learn which make him different from the rest of his peers as magnify in Chapter 5 verse 27. Not only is he well learned in moral values, he is definitely well informed and well assimilated in the cultural aspect of ancient china in which he emphasize on “liu yi” (the six classic art). A man who perfect and mastered the six classic arts is seen as the paragon of a Junzi. As a result, although he was a man of great wisdom and knowledge, he was considered to be irrelevant in his era which legalism is much prevailed due to the fact that dealing enemies with soft approach is not that practical. His approach of analogy and maxim to explain his ideas is clearly cast aside by the totalitarian mentality of rulers during that period of time.

Which term and terms do you think are the most important in Confucius’ thought?
Confucianism focuses primarily on human behaviour, conduct and the attainment of peace. Confucian fundamental ideas are based on 3 basic concepts of Ren, Junzi and Li. Morality and empathy are the emphasis of Ren, acting as the basis of all human interaction. By achieving Ren, someone could achieve the quintessence of a Junzi, who is considered Confucian’s ideal being. The concept of Junzi is of one who has become a superior person through education, self-cultivation, right-thinking, and right-acting. Ren is most important because Confucian concept of Ren is different from the concept of Mohism. The concept of Confucian’s Ren is Ren Ai, whereby you love the ones close to you before loving others. On other hand, Mohism’s concept of Ren is Jian Ai whereby everyone is equal before heaven. Equality and impartiality are his key concept. This could be illustrated in the concept of a cake, in which if there is only one cake and both parents and neighbour are starving. According to Mohism’s Jian Ai, we should give the cake equality among both of them conversely in Confucian’s Ren Ai, we should give more to our parents because they are much closer to us than our neighbours.
Lastly, Confucius emphasized etiquette, defined as Li, which embodies aspects of life such as scrupulous everyday manners and all formalities of social interaction. These principles culminate in the 5 Constant Relationships, which define a person's proper conduct in society: parent and child, husband and wife, elder sibling and younger sibling, elder friend and younger friend, ruler and subject. Each person in Confucian society thus has a certain responsibility and accountability for his/her own actions as they are defined by these 5 Constant Relationships

The role of women in analect
In the Confucius’ era, women are often seen as submissive, loyal and often look down upon. In chapter 16 verse 7, a Junzi should guard himself against the attraction of feminine beauty, in chapter 9 verse 17, he states that Confucian yet to see a man as devoted to virtue as to beauty. In chapter 17 verse 25, women and xiao ren are often described as not being humble and difficult to deal with. In all these contacts, it is clearly seen that women are treated as less significant, completely substandard to the male equivalent. In the traditional Confucian teaching, the roles of manner and filial piety are often towards men and the approach in which men must pay due respect to parents absolutely. This concept is different for women because they are required to not just be filial to her parents but to her parents in law, spouse, male close relatives and even to her own blood relation sons. This act of suppression is completely undermining the function of women during pro Confucius period. This suppress view of women often prevent women to have freedom to pursue their own goals in life. Even after death of husbands, women are seen as bounded to their dead husbands to the law of filial piety so as to remain loyal to him by either living life as a widow or commit suicide. During those days, committing suicide is seen as an epitome form of filial piety to their husbands. With this kind mentality within the Confucius community, a woman’s place is centered on home and family. In addition to that, women are seen as child bearers and homemaker thus getting involved with manly activities like being a warrior, getting involved in imperial politics or going out to work are seen as taboo. Confucian often inculcates patriarchal doctrine instead of a matriarchal affair as seen during the tribal era of china. In lun yu, there are hardly any mentions about women specifically even if they do it is always negative instead it speaks of the role of sons, fathers, ministers, official, emperors who are part of the alpha male society. By not discussing about women at all it take away them of any value they may have possessed. I can conclude that during Confucian’s era, liberalization of women are not well accepted and intellectual discourses are seen as a form of disloyalty, assertive and against Confucius’s patriarchal ideas.

References and Citation
1.Analects by Confucius, Thomas croft (Editor), William E. Soothil (Translator), Dover publications, 128pp, Thrift Edition Ser.
2.Chapter 2 verse 22: Confucius said: “I know not what a man without trustworthiness may accomplish. Be it large or small, how could a carriage move without its yoke-bar?”
3.Chapter 1 verse 8: "Have no friends not equal to yourself.”
4.Chapter 5 verse 17: "Yen P'ing knew well how to maintain friendly intercourse. The acquaintance might be long, but he showed the same respect as at first."
5.Chapter 5 verse 26: “Tsze-lu said, "I should like, having chariots and horses, and light fur clothes, to share them with my friends, and though they should spoil them, I would not be displeased."
6.Chapter 23 verse: “Tsze-kung asked about friendship. The Master said, ‘Faithfully admonish your friend, and skillfully lead him on. If you find him impracticable, stop. Do not disgrace yourself.’ "
7.Chapter 16 verse 4: Confucius said: “There are three types of friends that you can benefit from, and there are three types of friend that can harm you. Befriend the righteous, honest and knowledgeable and there would be benefits. Befriend the unscrupulous, good at pleasing, and those that sweet talk people and there would be harm”.
8.Chapter 2 verse 3: Confucius said: "If you govern the people legalistically and control them by punishment, they will avoid crime, but have no personal sense of shame. If you govern them by means of virtue and control them with propriety, they will gain their own sense of shame, and thus correct themselves
9.Chapter 5 verse 8: Confucius, speaking to Tzu Kung said, "Who is superior, you or Hui?" Tzu Kung answered, saying: "How could I compare myself to Hui? He hears one point and understands the whole thing. I hear one point and understand another." Confucius said, "You are not equal to him; you are right, you are not equal to him.")
10.Chapter 5 verse 27: Confucius said: "In a hamlet of ten families there must be someone as loyal and trustworthy as I. But I doubt there will be someone as fond of study.")
11.Chapter 16 verse 7: Confucius said: “there are 3 things the gentleman should guard against in youth when the blood and chi are still unsettled, he should guard against the attraction of feminine beauty.
12.Chapter 9 verse 17: Confucius said: “I have yet to meet the man who is as devoted to virtue as beauty”
13.Chapter 17 verse 25: Confucius said: “only women and xiao ren are difficult to handle. Be close to them and they are not humble, keep them at arm’s length and they complain”
14.Chapter 5 verse 11: Tzu kung (disciple) said: “what I don’t want done to me, I don’t want to do to others. “Confucius said, Tz’u, you have not yet gotten to this level.”
15.Chapter 15 verse 23: Confucius said: “Do not do unto others what you would not want them do unto you”
16.Fairbank, John King, China, A New History, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1992)

QET Adversity

2010-10-02T23:44:00.002+08:00

It pains me deeply to write this essay, just as it has pained me seeing that the result of my qualifying English test has such poor affirmation of my English standard. I am definitely not blaming anyone but myself. Living a “hard life” as a student, by giving myself unnecessary pain, guilt and misery by unrealistic goals and lofty dreams have brought about a self-blaming process. After I was done blaming myself on what happened, I set a higher goal for myself. However, the vicious cycle continue. I personally think that self blaming and self criticism are the greatest virtue that one could possibly cultivate in order to do better next time. I grew up always believing that everything that went wrong was my fault. I guess this belief utterly wrong.

Knowing about QET long before entering NUS, I tried to improve myself in terms of writing skills. However the result is truly demoralizing. As someone who is very determined and strong willed in getting what I wanted after a prolong period of suffering. I know how it feels to want something so badly and get nothing out of it. What happened to poetic justice or even the tortoise and hare’s story? This incident began to change me holistically and comes to term that sometimes the very things I wanted most in life end up being the things that I just might never get. Hopefully this module helps me for the better.

The result begins to make me reflect on my past. I am in the 1st year of the 2nd semester (sophomore) of my university life. At the end of the third year or probably the fourth year, I am going to graduate. Whatever it is, I have to admit that I am on the brink of working life and soon I will have to make my own way through life. The question now is has the past years I spent in school been worthwhile? How has QET helped me prepare or rather open me to new opportunity to unlearn and relearn English once again? In Singapore, English is perceived as the language of business and administration. In the world., it is seen as the lingua franca probably due to the economic, cultural and political power of the most developed western countries in the world like the USA and United Kingdom.

My past years in school made me unwittingly think that I had improved on the grasp of the English language since the O level; perhaps my judgement has clouded me. Undeniably school taught me the basic skills of writing, reading and arithmetic, however that wasn’t enough to survive in NUS. The qualifying English test makes me realized that I have far more to learn and unlearn. In pursuit of greater achievements, I guess its time for me to empower myself, grit my teeth and come to terms with my weakness and really comprehend English at the best of my ability.

Summing up, I would say that my education had been quite worthwhile and enriching, there is a lot to remember and a lot worth forgetting. I may not be the ideal student that would any educationist happy and proud but I know I am not a failure either. In my heart, I know that the experiences I gained from any education institutions are priceless. What I am today is the direct result of what I achieved of my past education. Into the bargain, the very fact that I am able to pen down my views as I am doing now and accepting the fact that something needs to be done should vouch for the worth of my educational tour. In conclusion, I hope to compensate for the above mentioned Achilles heels with believe, hard work and discipline,

The Xia Shang Zhou Chronology Project - (simplified Chinese: 夏商周断代工程; pinyin: Xià Shāng Zhōu Duàndài Gōngchéng)

2010-10-02T04:13:00.001+08:00

1.What is the objective of the Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project?

The goal of the project was primarily to establish the chronology of the three earliest dynasties – Xia, Shang and Western Zhou scientifically based on the collective efforts of the social sciences, natural sciences and the humanities within a temporal restriction of four years. However, a deeper study reveals the different agendas of the scholars and the Chinese government. We believe unanimously that this government-sponsored project was part of a nationalistic campaign by the government to increase China’s importance and idolisation of the China civilisation as a whole. Furthermore, sentiment of Sinocentric among the Chinese could be the reason behind this chronology project which could lead to China’s importance and superiority in detriment of other nations. On the other hand, scholars may purely view this project as an opportunity for them to consolidate as much evidence on the three dynasties as they can, in hope that their findings will form a solid foundation for future researches.

2. What achievements of progresses have been made in this project, according to scholars of China?

The project is able to establish precise dates of the western Zhou period which falls on 841 B.C before the reign of Gonghe. 841 B.C is recognised as the start of the Chinese civilisation because it is well documented and internationally recognised. Prior to that, the dates are proven to be unreliable and persistent doubts are discerning due to its lack of archaeological and historical textual evidence. Using a multidisciplinary approach, they are able to clearly date the reign of king Li of western Zhou prior to Gonghe epoch, which is established to be on 899 B.C, thus pushing the timeline back even further. The year 899 B.C is chosen because it comply both the archaeological discovery and astronomical occurrence during that time.

In addition, the project determined the critical date of the downfall of the Shang Dynasty using a series of radiocarbon technologies, archaeology and ancient texts. This date could be used to make certain successive kings of the western Zhou. With that, they are able to provide relatively precise time that the rulers of the late Shang period were in power

Into the bargain, they are able to give a basic outline of the early Shang and Xia period in which they assumed that the entire culture of the Erlitou era belonged exclusively to the Xia dynasty. However these issues are utterly debatable because those assumptions are derived from one source, which is archaeology, and it does not create enough confirmation of Erlitou’s cultural standing. A precise postulation should be made with combined efforts from various sources. A single hypothesis could be correct if given enough verification to support its claim.

A further achievement of the project, which was discussed in class, was the intermingle of different researchers and scholars from diverse background ranging from physical sciences to social sciences coming together for this project. This project precedes any other historical projects in China due to the extensive number of academia of the various fields coming together in achieving one goal.
Great archives and database of the time before the Tang dynasty have been set up just to enhance this project. Great excavations have been made and many outstanding artefacts have been found that could be used as evidences of its specified existence, which could be a stepping stone and beneficial value in future ancient Chinese history projects.

3.Why and in what aspects has the Project been criticized?

Varied opinions were discussed at the critique of this project. Our discussions placed more emphasis on the point that this government sponsored project is seen more as a chauvinistic political urge to conceptualize the impression of 5,000 years of civilization rather than a key archaeological project.

In our opinion, the irregularity of the scientific process which consists of just Chinese scholars proved that their research could be modulated towards the expected result. They all knew that possible future government financed chronology projects will be jeopardized if they did not find any prove for China's long-lasting history.
The exclusion of foreign expertise in this project further reduced the reliability and credibility of the data collected and the whole project respectively. However, other groups did not see the governmental influence or rather governmental assertion as a big problem because they figured that since it is their history, no foreigners should be involved so as not to jeopardise its findings. According to them, the main factor of the western criticism is not a political issue but the fear of rising China.

Our members, as well as other teams, also discussed about the introduction of radiocarbon technology. Although it is not a relatively new technology, China has only started using these technologies in the 1980s, which is late as compared to its western counterpart 6. Consequently, their ways of deciphering and the methodology to determine the periods might not mature. In order to use this technology, a significant amount of carbon is needed to get a specific and reliable measurement of its instituted date.

Reading of historical manuscripts is another point of criticism because these ancient textual are not very well preserved and the deterioration of its quality might hinders quality of its translation. Expertise in this field of studying, deciphering and interpretating ancient manuscripts could be a factor that is judgemental in getting correct translation.

4.Conclusion

Responds to Question one and two, are often given based on textual or read up however the third question provided a wider range of possible answer due to different opinions from the various tutorial groups. However, we feel that the question of whether the involvement of the Chinese government did or did not jeopardized the credibility of data and the reliability of the project as a whole would have been a great tutorial discussion topic.

5.References

1.Li Xueqin. “The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Methodology and Results.” Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2003, pp. 321-333.
2.Lee, Yue Kuan. “Differential Resolution in History and archaeology.” Journal of East Asian Archaeology, 2003, pp. 375-86.
3.Session 79: The Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project: Defense and Criticism. Annual Conference by Association for Asian Studies, 2002, Washington D. C. http://www.aasianst.org/absts/2002abst/China/sessions.htm#79
4.Erik Eckholm. “In China, Ancient History Kindles Modern Doubts.” New York Times, Nov. 10, 2000, pg. A3.
5.Bruce Gillery. “Digging into the Future.” Far Eastern Economic Review: Jul 20, 2000: pg. 74-77.
6.Development of accelerator mass spectrometry in china, Guo Zhiyu, Ma Hongji, Liu Kexin, Institute of Heavy Ion Physics, Peking University, China, Jiang Shan, Jiang Songsheng, China Institute of Atomic Energy, China, Chen Mobai, Liu Yonghao, Shanghai Institute of Nuclear Research, CAS, China

The fast development of technology has done more harm than good to mankind

2010-09-29T03:09:00.004+08:00

Throughout history, technology had been part and parcel of any civilizations. Man has made tremendous advancements technologically. From a humble beginning to the industrial revolution, we have come to a stage where we have invented and built so many gadgets that our very existence revolved around them. As a result, I have to disagree with the statement that “the fast development of technology has done more harm than good to mankind”. This essay not only explores the positive implications but also its negative effects. However, most of it is the reasons that it had been beneficial to mankind throughout history.

Firstly, the development of the four great invention of China was the start of the Chinese civilization. The start of papermaking during the Han Dynasty that jumped started printing. This resulted in knowledge to be disseminated from one generation to another through written records. The use of compass had indeed brought about various sea explorations during the Ming dynasty. The invention of gun powder during the later part of the imperial china caused China to wage wars with her neighbours for social and economic purposes. While China goes about creating for themselves inventions to fulfill their fancies, they neglected their basic self. They failed to take responsibility for their creation. As a result, death and destruction occurs.

In addition, the development of industrial machinery during the industrial revolution brought about changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transportation. These machineries have helped mankind to explore various technologies to increase food productions. The start of metal production jumped starts the development of transportations such as cars, planes and motorcycles. These modes of transportation have brought about convenient and effective way of travelling. Besides that the industrial revolution had brought many countries into the start of globalization. On the other hand, industrialization led to the creation of factory. The rise of factories brought about environmental tragedies. Air pollution, sea pollution, acid rain and now global warming may one day overwhelm our very existence. Furthermore, Metallurgy resulted in the making of superefficient weapons. Instead of swords and spears, we now have machine guns, heat seeking missiles, cruise missiles, jet fighters and other tools of murder and mayhem.

Furthermore, information technology that harnesses natural resources had resulted from the fast development of technology. Information technology had provided mankind to store knowledge digitally. These provided mankind the luxury to explore the world with just a click of a mouse. It also helped mankind to be self reliant and gave us convenience in accessing to the data we wanted. Harnessing natural resources such a wind and solar energy are extremely useful. By harnessing these natural energies, it helped us to be environmentally friendly and less reliant on oil. These technologies not only have positive implications to mankind but the environment. However, these resources are not effective distributed due to political and bureaucratic hindrances.

Likewise, the advancement of the manufacturing industry in producing electronic elements such as resistors, capacitor and microprocessors is another factor to be considered. These electronic elements have shifted the way we do things. During ancient times, human did their chores using mechanical devices such as pulleys. Although these mechanical devices are good but they are labour intensive and perhaps the work done was not that significant. However with the development of these basic electronic elements, things could be done with a press of a button and many things could happen at any one time. These save costs and labour workforce. The use of microprocessor has changed how computers work, medical equipment function and how mankind benefits from these drastic changes.

In conclusion, the above examples mentioned have shown that mankind has indeed benefited tremendously from the fast development of technology in terms of social, economic and political aspects. It is high time we take responsibility of our action, strengthen our moral values and make the world a better place to live in with the fast development of technology.

The Role of Horses (马) in Chinese History

2010-06-04T23:18:00.003+08:00

1. Why did China desperately need horses from the nomads? How did Chinese empire try to solve the problem?

Throughout ancient China, no animal has a greater impact on its civilization other than the humble horse. With the onset of domestication of indigenous Mongolian horses back in the Shang and Zhou Periods, the function of horses had evolutionised from an animal doing menial jobs to becoming an animal of great importance in China’s foreign relations, military policies and economic well beings. Previously, horses were used as a mode of transport, function as religious sacrificial and the purpose of drawing chariots.

Although ancient Chinese tends to fully utilize the indigenous breed of Mongolian horses due to its adaptability to withstand harsh environment however these horses proves to be inadequate in term of its usage for warfare purposes as they are often outrun, less resilience and resistance to warfare environment by larger and more capable breeds of horses of the Northern and Western Steppes.

In those primeval times, the Chinese were capable of exploiting the Calvary art of war using chariots drawn by horses however the horses used and mode of fighting proves to be ineffective and vulnerable as compared to the barbaric art of shooting on horseback and the mastery art of horseback riding. These earliest ability of Calvary combat have been taken advantage of by the Shang, Zhou and Qin Dynasties. This obsolete art of war could be seen in excavation sites in and around An-yang (Modern-day Honan) and the excavation of the Terracotta Army in Xian in Shanxi Province during the Shang and Qin periods respectively.

The development and assimilation of these barbaric arts of war into the Chinese Calvary art of war occurred during King Wu-ling of the Northern Chao period as mentioned by the great historian, Sima Jian (司马迁) in his Shiji. As time went by, the Chinese began to gain mastery of such barbaric art of war thus good horses are needed; they are required to enhance military tactics during the rise of the Han Dynasty, reign by Emperor Han Wu-ti. Besides that, the threat of nomadic from the Northern and Western steppes proves to be cause of the Chinese empire to advance in its art of war. Perhaps the Han Dynasty knew that China’s survival relied fully on its equestrian prowess.

As a result, the Chinese were forced to abandon their traditional war chariot warfare in favour of the barbaric art of mounted Calvary which is seen as faster, better and more effective in handling threats from the barbarians. This is the start of using horses for military, economic and social purposes. The need of sufficient steed forces for the army seems to be a common goal through China’s imperial past to combat military threat.

The Chinese empire tried to solve this problem of getting good horses through three means – economic, military and political means. In economics, the Chinese Han dynasty started with the exchange of Chinese Silk with Xiongnu fine horses and other supplies that is necessary. The setting up of the South-Western Silk road which traded tea and horses which links southwest China with Tibet, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and beyond. The opening up of the major route of transcontinental trade called the Silk Road (North) by pioneer Zhang Qian (張騫) which opens to trade in the Central Asia resulted in trading with countries such as Dayuan (Ferghana), Daxia (Bactria) and Shendu (India). These resulted in the mobilization of Chinese Silk across many part of the world in exchange for China’s necessities which in this case good horses for war. In the Song dynasty, several markets were set up which was administered by the offices of horse trades (mamasi). As the desperation of good horses are needed, military campaign is the next steps in acquiring good horses if the economic policy failed as seen in Dayuan (Ferghana- Modern day Uzbekistan) and against the Xiongnu when they failed in sharing their special breed of horses called Kuai-ti with the Han empire. In order to be self-sufficient and self reliant, the Chinese empire did try to create careful breeding of the Ferghana horses but were rarely successful. This may be due to the inadequate expertise in handing such foreign horses, environment and different function of horses in China and Ferghana. Last but not the least, horses are seen as political symbol in a form of tributes and gift to the Chinese Empire such as during the Tang dynasty with the Uyghur which they helped in suppressing the An Lu Shan Rebellion.

In conclusion China not just need any horses but good horses from the western steppes, northern steppes and Central Asia which are used in building up their military capability to combat external threats. The role of horses is further elaborated in question 2.

2. What was the role of horses in the Sino-foreign interaction?

The role of horses in the Sino-foreign interaction is very holistic in nature which encompasses in the form of economic, military and political agenda as briefly explained in Question 1.

Since the policy of desperately needing good horses from the nomads, the Chinese empire bolster up its demand of horses through peaceful means such as trading in order to expand its economic agenda and in return getting what they hopelessly needed which are horses. This idea of peaceful and non intervention policy was first seen with the opening up of the North Silk Road in which Chinese Silk was used to trade with Central Asia during the Han Dynasty in exchange for their needs. On the other hand, the opening of the South West “Silk Road” between Tibet and Yunnan traded Tea and horses.

Another such policy is the Heqin policy in which women and Silk are being exchange for peace. We assumed that the Chinese Han is implementing such policy to buy time in building up their own military capability before launching a full attack on them. In addition to that, strategy of using horses as a symbol of peace making is actually to protect the Chinese empire dominant position in the central plain and to drain their enemies’ resources and slow down their economies and catch processes in terms of horse riding and the art of shooting on horses before fragmenting them. Although this policy is often short lived due to a great inadequate of good horses, failure of Chinese breeding program and great military threat with the barbican thus resulting in a rise of urgency in acquiring good horses.

As the survival of the Great Chinese Empire relies solely on its equestrian prowess, massive military campaigns are being formed in search of good horses. As the Xiongnu failed in keeping peace with the Han Dynasty as constant raids are happening in the North Silk road, a war is inevitable. As a result, the need for horses is just an agenda to attack and exploit them. In Central Asia, in the state of Dayuan (Ferghana), military campaign led by General Li Kuang Li (李廣利) against Ferghana is also being held after numerous failed expeditions to bring back as many “Blood Sweating” Horses as possible. This act of intervention helps to achieved two possibilities – to acquire good horses for its military usage and also for empire expansion to states outside China Proper. Although the Chinese did acquire numerous horses from Ferghana, the outcome of the expedition proves to be arduous and onerous for the horses thus many died on the way back. Possibly, the idea of possessing such horses is not just military but supernatural as well.

In terms of political agenda, the functions of horses are as tributes or gifts from vassal states to the Chinese Empire. This could be seen in the Tang Dynasty during the reign of Emperor Taizong when he conquered the Eastern Turks and became the Heavenly Qaghan of the Turks thus they presented horses as a form of allegiance to the Chinese empire. After the An Lushan rebellion, horses are seen as gifts when the Uyghur helps in suppressing the rebellion.

In conclusion, the function of horses comes in numerous forms such as financial income, an agenda to attack another country, acknowledgment of power and most important of all the role of horses is that it brought about great interaction to the outside world as compared to other dynasties before Han dynasty which in turn brought about changes in foreign relations, military conquest, economic well being and social interaction of Chinese Empire.

3. Can you suggest any historical and cultural legacy of horse in our contemporary society?

All the way through China’s illustrious past, horses are symbols of power, elitism and success.

During the reign of Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Mingdi (汉明帝) ordered the construction of White Horse Temple to honor the arrival of Buddhism in China and the horse that carried back the sutras. During the Tang dynasty, six steeds are being immortalized by Emperor Taizong (唐太宗) because they were once their sole companion in the battles towards the reunification of China. They are known as the six steeds of the Zhao ling Mausoleum whereby Emperor Taizong and his empress are buried.
During Tang’s Golden age of the Kaiyuan era, great cultural and Chinese art flourished. The horse statues which come in different shapes, sizes and material are seen as true artistic burgeon during that time. Statues during that time depict the popularity of riding for pleasure instead of just military purposes. Horses are used as tributes by the Tang dynasty as a form of gift for helping them with the suppression of the An Lu Shan Rebellion.

In our contemporary society, many things got something to do with horses one way or another. Horse racing seems to be an equestrian sport that has been practiced for many centuries with the onset of chariot races to horseback races as we have now. Although it has a bad connotation with gambling, horse racing is fully assimilated in our culture till today. Equestrian is also an internationally recognized and well documented sport during the Olympic Games. Polo is also a sport that played outdoors on horseback. This sport is known to be dated since the Tang Dynasty.
Culturally, the word horse or ma (马) is being incorporated in surnames such Ma Yuan (马远) (Chinese general of Eastern Han Dynasty), Ma Chao (马超) (Chinese general during the Three Kingdoms Era) and Great Historian, Sima Jian (司马迁). Into the bargain, Chinese Muslims often have the surname Ma (姓 ) in accordance to the Prophet Muhammad.

In addition to that words that are correlated to the words ma such as Mother (mama), Prince consort( fu ma), Horsewhip (Ma Bian), Cart (Ma Che), Engine (Ma Da), A careless person(Ma Da Ha), A herd of horses(Ma Dui), Careless (Ma Hu), Potato (Ma Ling Shu), Road(Ma Lu), At once(Ma Shang), Prince Charming (Bai Ma Wang Zi) and many more. In addition to that many idioms revolves around the word horse as well such as the horse gallops on without stopping (Ma Bu Ting Ti) which means non-stop, take the head of the general’s horse as guide (Ma Shou Shi Zhan) which means to follow somebody’s lead, Horse arrives success comes (Ma Dao Gong Cheng) which is a Chinese traditional expression of complementing someone successful carrer or achievement. One of the first idiom I learned during Dr Yang’s lecturer is calling a deer a horse (Zhi Lu Wei Ma ) in which it is often describes someone who is unreasonable, forcing his or her opinion on other and to a certain extend someone who is stupid. The Chinese zodiac consists of the horse as well.

In our modern context, one of the best car’s companies, Ferrari adopts a black horse as its logo. Horsepower (Ma Li) the unit of power is also used in ancient unit of measurement. Ancient civilization also uses horse as their story line such as the story of the Trojan horse and the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse which describe in the bible.

4. Conclusion

This gives a good insight of how men and animals correlate to each other in the rise of the Chinese Civilization. Although role of horses have been long forgotten and diminished in practical importance in modern context due to the development of technology, the attitude and the spirit of the horses still run deeply throughout Chinese culture and art. In conclusion, the function of such legendary creature should not be forgotten in which the role it plays in shaping our civilization.

References

[1] H.G. Creel. “The Role of Horse in Chinese History.” The American Historical Review, Vol. 70, No. 3 (April, 1965), pp. 647-672.

[2] Bin Yang. “Horses, Silver, Crowies: Yunnan in a Global Perspective.” Journal of World History 15:3 (September 2004), pp. 281-322

[3] Stanley J.Olsen. “The Horse in Ancient China and its cultural Influence in Some Other Areas.” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 140(2) (1998), pp. 151-189

[4] Charles Benn. “China’s Golden Age – Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty.” Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002

Chinese Imperial Women

2010-06-02T22:40:00.002+08:00

1. How did the Heqin Policy shape the life of the princess?

Princesses were merely political tools that arise due to the emergence of the Heqin policy. As political “scapegoats”, they had to shoulder the heavy responsibility of maintaining peace between two countries. Princesses had little control over their lives, with their marriages and futures being unilaterally determined by emperors. They could only escape the fate of being married off to a foreign land by seeking refuge in religious outlets, requesting to be ordained as Daoist priestess. For those who eventually became part of the Heqin policy, they led a life of uncertainty as they moved to a foreign land without knowing who their future husbands were and went with the mindset that they may never return to their homeland. Returning back to their homeland seemed to be an uphill task due to political implications. Taihe’s poignant story showed how some of the Chinese officials had initially denied her entry back to China even after she made the perilous journey back to China, as Chinese were at hostilities with the Turkish.

Princesses were also lonely and unhappy most of the time, longing for their homeland as they adapted to a drastically different culture, lifestyles and climate, mostly without the company of their closet kin.

However, princesses probably enjoyed an elevation in their social status as a consequence of the policy. Not only were they seen as national heroes in their home country, sacrificing their happiness for the sake of their people, they also played a more vital role in the foreign courts. As their position shifted from being a princess to being an empress, they wielded more power in the political scene. This is further enforced with the fact that women outside China enjoyed a better social standing in general, as they were less restricted by cultural and social constrains. An exemplification of their political power is seen in Taihe’s case where she held power in the Uighur court and was allowed to establish her own quarters and had the company of the Chinese ministers for close to a year. Furthermore, they gained considerable economic independence and freedom. As empresses, they could decide which of the precious items were to be sent back to China.

2. In what aspect and to what degree did the Chinese life differ from the Turkish one?

The differences in practices between Chinese and Turkish life can be broadly classified into the social and economic aspects. An intriguing point to note in the social aspect was that although Chinese were generally considered more constrained, traditional and conservative in thinking as compared to the Turkish, the circumstances were very different during the Tang dynasty. The peculiarity of the Tang dynasty was the openness of it. During this period, Chinese appeared to be more receptive to foreign ideas and were expressive in their literatures. In the Tang dynasty, Buddhism and Daoism flourished as the core ideology while Confucianism prestige dipped. As a result, women’s social standing amplified during the Tang dynasty.

Despite the increased status for women then, Chinese women still faced more restrictions in their conducts as compared to their Turkish counterparts. Though Imperial princesses were active within the domestic sphere and were exposed to foreign imports, such as polo, they still left the palace infrequently. In comparison, Turkish princesses could accompany several of the embassies to China, showing that they enjoyed a relative high level of autonomy.

The diet of the two differs greatly as well. Chinese meals were made up of mainly fresh fruits and food, with rice and wheat as their main staple. As Turkish had less access to fresh supplies, their staples were mostly meat, dried fruits and fermented foodstuff, such as mare’s milk. Dressing was another point of dissimilarity between Chinese and Turkish. During the Tang dynasty, their dressing emphasized on the impossibly wide sleeves which used as much silk as the rest of the robes. Taihe’s Chinese dress was worn so as to reveal considerable décolleté. In comparison, Turkish dressing sported a more modest, plain round neck with narrow sleeves.

Chinese and Turkish had divergent religious ideology and beliefs as well. As mentioned, Buddhism and Daoism formed the main pillar of ideologies in Tang China while majority of the Turkish were Muslims. There were also conflicting beliefs and customs concerning the treatment of widowed imperial ladies. For the Turkish, at the death of the Tukish Kaghan, the wives could either commit suicide so that she could be buried alongside her late husband or slashed their face with a knife as a sign of mourning. In comparison, Tang Chinese were more liberal in its treatment of widows.

Geographically, the greenery, verdant river valleys and lush spectacular mountain scenery made the Chinese landscape one that is something to marvel at. Turkish did not offer such luxuriant and extravagant landscapes as they suffered from harsher weather, making their land unsuitable for agricultural purposes.

Economically, their core competencies in trade differ. Chinese relied on their treasured silk as their main trading tool. The demand for silk came from their neighbouring countries, such as Burma and Vietnam, and silk was sought after even in the far west. Due to their nomadic links, Turkish depended more on their cavalry ponies/horses as their main trading tool. As their horses were of superior quality, it could entice the Chinese to carry out trade with them.

3. What were the major differences among the elite men and women in terms of their life course?

The most fundamental difference between elite men and women was the significance of the life markers in their lives. The passage of life’s’ markers held out growing promise for elite women, as the passing of each life markers means an improvement in their domestic status and that they were a step closer to realize their eventual passing of their burdens on to the next generation. The main goal of an elite woman was to supply male progeny for the family line that they were married to. Thus, as long as they provide a heir for the family, they were relieved of their most pressing burden and would be able to enjoy greater spiritual and emotional autonomy as they aged. However, the passage of elite men’s life markers did not look as promising as the women. For men, each marker was an ominous sign of potential failure and signaled the possible struggles to be faced ahead. This was true for the men as they faced unusual amount of stress because they were expected to strive for both career success and moral self- realization simultaneously when both were increasingly exclusive, thus increasing their chances of failure as they aged.

The other issue on the life markers was that it passed more rapidly for women as a girl’s life was measured in 7 years while a boy’s life in 8 years. This resulted in a different prime and decaying period for the two genders. For example, at age 50, it signaled the start of the final stage of women’s life course while men’s official career supposedly only peaked at 50 sui.

Elite men also enjoyed a more vibrant social life as compared to their women counterparts. Elite parents indulged their young sons in their mid twenties and thirties, giving them much freedom and allowing them to engage in extramarital dalliances. Elite women on the other hand were expected to remain faithful to their spouse once they were betrothed, even if their intended spouse died before the wedding. Thus, elite women’s miseries in arranged marriages were much more prevalent than the men, since men can afford to seek solaces in other women.

Elite women faced much restriction socially and physically. Gender segregation for elite women was strict and they lived in rear apartments where they could be shielded from the gaze of outsiders. Besides the domestic seclusion, they also had to abide to strict rules that governed their contacts with outsiders and men. The fact that foot binding was seen as a necessity by elite families meant that virtually all of the elite women had their feet bounded. Consequently, their actions were pretty much limited and they had to depend on others in order to move around. However, such restrictions being imposed on them also protected elite women from the material corruption of the society that elite men were subjected to daily, due to the men’s multiple interactions with the society.

After marriage, elite women were seen as members of another family and their status of would then be dependant on her husband’s status. Married women were formally expected to mourn for their own parents for 1 year and their parental mourning obligations were transferred to their in-laws. This showed the detachment of elite women to her natal family once they were married. Elite men however did not face such issues and they would have the continued responsibility of caring for the well – being of the same family.

4. What were the roles of female rulers in imperial China?

As there was a clear lack of sole sovereign female rulers in China, the exception being Empress Dowager Wu Zetian, we define female rulers as empresses, empress dowagers and regent empress dowagers. Although they do not have direct influence over major decisions, they can wield tremendous influence on the emperor, thus indirectly influencing state policies. The empress dowager, as the mother of the Son of Heaven is widely revered by the Emperor and court officials. This has to do with Confucius’ idea of being filial towards one’s father-mother (fu mu). And thus being someone of intimate relations with the Emperor, female rulers have the ability to influence, advice or even subtly rebuke the Emperor and court officials should they not agree with a certain issue. We think this is very like the role of Minister Mentor currently in Singapore, where the opinions of Lee Kuan Yew are still sought although they are not necessarily followed.

5. In what kind of circumstances did they emerge?

These influential female rulers emerged due to the strong Confucianist idea of filial piety towards ones parents. Also, these female rulers were able to stay relevant, influential and powerful because for a woman to have outshone other women to gain the emperor’s favour and be made empress is not easy at all. Thus naturally, these female rulers all have certain traits which enable them to survive criticisms by court officials and palace intrigues. These women were strong, determined and intelligent. On certain occasions, a regent empress dowager is appointed when the emperor is too young, ill, dead or through a posthumous edict. In extreme circumstances, when the present emperor is deemed weak or ineffective by court officials, the empress dowager becomes regent to mediate the transition of power from dethroning the emperor to enthroning his successor. Also, the empress dowager becomes regent to officially handover state property to a successive dynasty. For example, the Empress Dowager and Emperor Pu Yi of the Qing Dynasty surrendered the state to the Republic of China in 1911.

They occur more often in the Northern Dynasties compared to the Southern Dynasties as perhaps due to their tribal or barbaric influences, Northern Dynasties are found to be more matrilineal.

6. How did they differ from their male counterparts?

Regent empress dowagers were never given the legitimacy nor the Mandate of Heaven to succeed the previous emperor as sovereign ruler by court officials and the people. We think this is due to the patriarchal nature of Imperial Chinese society. They are merely seen as seat-warmers until the next emperor is ready to rule by himself. A compromise was reached in the Song Dynasty in an attempt to institutionalize the regency of empress dowagers. They were seen as joint rulers with the emperor and none of her decisions can be executed without the consent of the emperor. Also, as often the emperor is not ready to rule, the regent empress dowager is also considered “tutoring the emperor in government.” We witness a bid to curb extreme influences of these female regents by institutionalizing the regency.

As they do not possess the legitimacy to rule, they are not allowed to issue decrees, perform imperial ceremonial plowing or offer sacrifices

Regent empress dowagers always had a harder time in court as most Confucian scholar-officials were against the idea of having a women in the ‘outer court’ (wai) and not in the ‘inner court’ (nei).

Historians and scholars also tend to focus on reigns by regent empress dowagers that were bad while the good ones were rarely mentioned. This lent to the argument by the Ming dynasty to prohibit empress dowagers from becoming regents. This was also enforced during the times of Emperor Wei Wen-ti and Emperor Wuti.

7. Although these readings only focus on elite women, could you please discuss the role of women in imperial China in terms of politics, economics, culture and so on?

As mentioned in the first few questions, palace women with the emperor’s favour, especially the concubines, can have significant influence and power over court officials. They can influence policies and appointments to the court. Often times, the emperor is persuaded to promote their male relatives to court over more experienced scholars. Moreover, the combination of concubines and eunuchs is a force to be reckoned with as these are the people that form the inner circle of the emperor whereas important state ministers are often in the outer circle. An extreme circumstance of the over-influence of women in the palace is the downfall of the dynasty, as in the case of the Tang Dynasty blamed on Lady Yang. Some palace women, as mentioned in Q1, are used as diplomatic or political tools to maintain relations or loyalty of vassal states or to secure the alliance of a state within or out of China.

Women were not exactly considered the propagators of Chinese culture due to their lack of education and exposure to works from other culturalists. Nevertheless, women had a lot of impact on the aesthetics aspects of culture. It is considered unmanly for men to be the object of admiration. Thus we often find beautiful lovelorn poems or novels written by men with women as the object of desire. In history, we have the legendary Four Great Beauties of ancient China. These four set the standard for beauty for women of imperial China to strive for, and for men to write about.

Foot-binding was popular among the elite women as it signifies prosperity and beauty. Foot-binding is a status symbol. Only the rich can afford to have their daughters not contributing to the family in labour. It is a sexual fetish that the imperial society unfortunately expected very highly of women to conform to. The ‘lily-foot’ is said to evoke the protective instincts of men when women walk with a swaying and clumsy gait. The Chinese men found this very sexy. It is a double-edged sword as having ‘lily-feet’ fetches one better marriage prospects but confines one to an immobile and dependent lifestyle, while the normal-footed cannot demand the richer men but is able to move about with ease and thus, support oneself.

The social restrictions and women’s subordinate status limited their public life and activities but did not invade into their private life, where they were still deeply respected and regarded by their children. In terms of a wider culture, the mother stands in for the busy father in tutoring the young in Confucian ways. The foundation and continuation of Confucianism in the imperial society depended very much on the support of mothers in China to inculcate these values faithfully into their children.

Although women are said to be confined to the ‘inner court,’ their weaving was very much vital to China’s economy. Women formed the core workforce in what was probably the most important and valuable industry of China: silk-weaving. Without the hundreds of thousands of weavers across China, the empire would never have enough amount of silk to trade with other countries for other necessities (i.e. Ferghana horses). Silk opened up China trade-routes and channels (i.e. The Silk Road), and formed trade-relations with faraway states (i.e. South Asia and the Mediterranean). It expanded the economy and had a domino effect on other local industries as well, causing the local populace to fluorish and prosper well into the Qing period.

Furthermore, in marriages, dowry and bridal gifts often were the single largest expense of any family. To stint on dowry and bridal gifts was considered a letdown to the family’s name and honour. There are many anecdotes of families incurring huge amounts of debt or selling their personal property just to finance the wedding. Indirectly, the marrying off of a daughter or the inclusion of a daughter-in-law into the family incur such an expense that it forms a significant portion of China’s domestic economy.

References

Whitfield Susan. “The Princess’s Tale,” in Life along the Silk Road. London: John Murray, 1999, pp. 95-112.

Susan Mann. Chapter 3: “The Life Course,” in Precious Records: Women in China’s Long Eighteenth Century. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997, pp. 45-76.

Lien-sheng Yang. “Female Rulers in Imperial China.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol.23. (1960-1961), pp. 47-61.

Is caste still sustainable in an era of Universal human rights? Is caste sustainable in a democracy?

2010-05-08T22:58:00.002+08:00

To me in India, caste (hierarchy of the pure and unpure) is not the only thing that challenges the universal human rights. The Varna system too is a form of prejudice. Racism and other forms of prejudice started early in India. The Aryans were fair-skinned nomadic fighters. They settled in India in about 1500 BCE, after conquering the original, dark-skinned inhabitants, whom they included in the Aryan society as artisans and manual workers. It was the Aryans who introduced the system of Varna, which is still an important feature of Hindu society today.

Varna is a Sanskrit word which means colour. The class divisions were based on the colour of people’s skin and were a form of racism. These divisions gave Aryan higher social standing than the darker skinned lower castes. Over the centuries there has been intermarriage between people descended from the Aryans and those descended from the original inhabitants. Many other people have also settled in India, so there is no such thing as Aryan racial purity anymore. However, the Varna system is still very strong. There is religious support for it in the Bhagavad-Gita and in the Rig Veda, book 10, Hymm 90 on how the four Varnas of the Hindu society were born:-

“When the primal man is divided
The Brahmin (priest) arose from his mouth),
The Kshatriya (warrior) from his arms,
The vaishya (merchant) from his thighs and
The Shudras (artisan) from his feet.” (Purusha hymm)

From these verses above, I could infer several things. Since the Varna system is found in both the Bhagavad-Gita and Rig Veda, it must be very old. Let’s assume it to be 5000 B.C. Given that the origin of the Varna system is from the Rig Veda, the institution itself must be divine and “word of God(s)”. The Almighty God himself divided the Hindu society into four Varnas. In the view of the fact that God did it, it must be for the good of the people and permanent in nature. In addition, seeing as the four Varnas were born from different part of the body which are in descending order, these Varnas must also have hierarchical order. The Brahmin must be at the top and Shudras at the bottom.

However such concept is often dynamic in nature. As a result, Hindu societies were faced with some problems as the society advanced. Problems such as family life had not developed sufficiently, inter-Varna marriages were increasing, incoming of foreigners into India and many more created a situation where the Varna system failed. Since these social, economic, geographical and other factors sprung up, the institution of castes were developed to tackle such problems.

So the question is whether the caste system still sustainable in an era of Universal human rights? The traditional Varna and caste system in Hindu society is gradually breaking down in large cities. However personally, it still affects the basic human rights of many Hindus, especially in the rural areas. For example the dalit or the untouchables. Mahatma Ghandi called them harijans, which means children of God, but they called themselves dalit which means oppressed. “Untouchability” was abolished by law in India in 1950s. Even so, many dalits are not free to live where they wish, as their homes are deliberately situated away from those of high caste Hindus, and in many villages they live just outside the village boundary. I think in India, Hindus are not free to marry anyone they like, since caste and family tradition still control the choice of marriage partners in most cases. I personally think although each caste normally does their traditional jobs, they are interdependent on each other and mutually accommodating. Furthermore, Hinduism is in agreement with the UN declaration of Human rights but with practice differ in India. In spite of the formal declarations of human rights, many millions of people in India do not enjoy a standard living adequate for their health, and well-being, housing, medical care, unemployment and old age. The Indian constitution itself is not based on Hindu ethics and India is a secular country. However, it affects the 83 percent of the population who are Hindu. Some of the aspects o the constitution conflicts with traditional Hindu ideas such as the right of equality, the right to property and etc but Hinduism has developed over 3500 years, in which it always adapting to the changing times. In theory, there is full acceptance by Hindus of the constitution.

Reflecting back, the origin, rise and present position of the Varna, caste system showed that it has lost almost all its relevance. It has become a liability, so much so that it wrongly gives and perpetuates a non-existing complex. The very fact that most of the people, who call themselves of a particular community or group simply because they were born in that caste, do not think, behave or work in accordance to that caste anymore. With that, caste is not sustainable in an era of Universal human rights.

What are your thoughts on the place/treatment of women in the Confucian tradition, particularly in the context of marriage?

2010-05-07T23:47:00.003+08:00

Since the onset of Confucianism during the Great Han Dynasty, the general perception of women from antiquity was that they were often seen as submissive, looked down upon and incompetent in a feudalistic society and patriarchal system of government. Reflecting from one of the five classic books called the book of poetry (Shi Jing); it illustrates the role of women during the Confucianistic dogma:

When a son is born,
Let him sleep in the bed,
Clothe him with fine robes,
And give him scepters to play with,
Their cry will be loud
They will be [hereafter] resplendent with red knee-covers,
The [future] king, the princes of the land.

When a daughter is born,
Let her sleep on the ground,
Wrap her in common wrappings,
And give her broken tiles to play with
May she have no faults, nor merits of her own;
May she well attend to food and wine,
And bring no discredit to her parents!

The book of odes is one of the most revered and authentic sources of materials in understanding the social life of ancient china through poetry. From the quote above, the inequality of women in ancient China proved to be undermining the function of a woman. Submission seems to be the main theme in glorifying and defining the ideal woman in ancient China. This act of suppression could be further ascertained with an existed code of conduct for women which controlled the behaviour and instruction of women in the first century BC with the dominance of Confucianism. Throughout life, Chinese women was subjected to the three submissions, which stipulated that she follows the wishes of her father, submitting herself to her husband and obeying her son (wei jia cong fu, ji jia cong fu, fu si cong zi). In other words, a woman should build her life around the men in her life, and submit herself to them totally and without reservation. A woman is not entitled to have an independent construal of self.

Similarly, Confucius himself although did not directly undermine the role of women (not even his wife) however there are hardly any mention about women specifically even if it did. It is always negative instead it speaks of the role of sons, fathers, ministers, emperors who are part of the alpha male society. In the Confucius Analects or Lun yu, various analects quotes from chapter 16 verse 7, chapter 9 verse 17 and chapter 17 verse 25. From these quotes, it was clearly seen that women was treated as less significant, completely substandard to the male equivalent. These suppressive views on women often prevented women to have freedom to pursue their own goals in life. With this kind of mentality within the Confucius community, a woman place is centered on home and family. The liberation of women during Confucius era was not well accepted and intellectual discourse was seen as a form of disloyalty, assertive and against Confucius’s patriarchal ideas and Chinese traditions of preferring a son to carry on the family name.

The position of Chinese women was further undermined and affected by the publication of two great books called Lienuzhuan (the biographies of women) by Liu Xiang and nujie (admonishments for women) by Ban Zhao . Both writers described rigorously moral conduct for women which women needs to adhere to and model themselves strictly on these confucianistic teachings. The authors inculcated the idealistic idea such as “nan qi qiang wei gui, nu yi ruo wei mei” which means the value of man is strength, beauty is weakness or qi chu zhī tiáo which is the seven reasons for divorce: - disobedience to parents, barrenness, jealously, maliciousness, talkativeness, immorality and deceitfulness.

In the context of marriage, traditionally in China they are perhaps more concern of the family than the individual. This idea could be seen in my Chinese drama whereby family which consists of a father, mother, and siblings (perhaps married) living under one roof. Marriage were arranged with little or no consideration for the personal feelings and wished of the couple concerned. When a woman suffered unfair treatment in her marital life, she had no legal rights of appeal and had to bear her suffering as best as she could. She could not even initiate divorce unless her husband was guilty of unfilial acts towards members of her family of origin from a traditional perspective. However, the husband could legally initiate divorce if the wife was found guilty of one of the seven conditions or qi chu as recorded in the book of rites (one of the five classics). These were being unfilial, barren, lascivious, jealous, succumbed to an incurable disease, excessive gossips, or stealing.

However, the status of women in the people’s republic of China has improved. I think a marriage law was enacted in 1950s which clearly specified that marriage was to be based on freedom of choice. Indeed, Mao once famously remarked that "Women hold up half the sky". This showed that confucianistic ideas no longer hold as much. Marriage was to be a relationship in which men and women shared equal rights, monogamy was upheld and bigamy and the taking in of concubines by men were prohibited. Objectification of and disrespect for women might still exist in marriage. In addition, with globalization and urbanization taking place, the traditional arranged marriage no longer holds. Perhaps due to the women had met their husbands through informal introductions by friends, colleague or neighbors, or perhaps had casual encounters at school, work or leisure activities.

In retrospect, the so-called unlucky women of ancient china may not have been fortunate enough to inspire the envy of today's women in becoming a devoted wife, dutiful spouse and exemplary mother.

Genetic testing - Obligated or Dilemma ?

2010-03-17T23:41:00.001+08:00

“The decision to undergo genetic testing can only be made by the individual at risk for a disorder. Once a test has been conducted and the results are known, however, a new, family-related ethical dilemma is born: Should carrier of a known genetic risk be obligated to tell his or her relatives (Forrest et al., 2007; Gaff et al., 2007)?”

With the advancement of medicine and technology, there is an exponential growth in the field of genetic testing in investigating and identifying changes in chromosomes, genes or proteins to seek out genetic disorders (Cox, 2003). As genetic testing shifted from a paradigm of imagination into the realm of reality, there are concerns that genetic test results might have legal, ethical and social implications. In particular, a family-related ethical predicament arises on whether family members should be informed on the result of the genetic test with an identified genetic risk (Forrest et al, 2007; Gaff et al, 2007). It shall be argued in this essay individual and his/her family hereby proposing that individuals with an associated genetic risk should inform his/her family members.
Firstly, genetic test results could have a considerable emotional or psychological affect on the individual who had the test, as well as on his/her family members who shared a mutual family tree. Hence, a collective responsibility could be achieved without being isolated to the individual being tested. In addition, by revealing genetic test results to the immediate family members could change the way in which an individual is being treated by them. For instance, an early inception of Alzheimer disease or dementia is often resulted from a mutation in a main inherited gene (Fogarty, 2001). If an individual is identified to have inherited that mutated gene, family members could offer emotional support in the short term and workable help and care could take place once the dementia worsens. Landsbergen (2004) emphasizes in her research that emotional and behavioral factors are important in inhibiting debilitation of the spread of genetic information to relatives. Generally, family members are seen as a pillar of strength and support.In addition, by revealing genetic test results to relatives, psychosocial support of relatives could be achieved through spreading of the implication of the detected mutated gene within the family which in turn creates a domino effect in propagating a collective responsibility towards the next generation.
In addition, genetic test results provide a significant medical implication which aimed at discovering an actual or probable genetic disorders of an individual (carrier) or his/her family. Medical information and genetic information are often distinguished based on the information provided which concerns not just the individual but his/her family members as well. As illustrate by Spaak (2006), individuals who is diagnosed to have inherited a condition called familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) could have his or her blood related family members of developing this condition, which could transforms into bowel cancer when not treated. However, if family members are warned that they are in risk group, perhaps they can decide to be tested and preventive measures could be carried out. Many individuals choose to undergo genetic testing are often influence by the realization of treatability and preventability within the family members. Godard B. et al. (2006) point out that individuals who are confirmed with a mutated gene may feel empowered by the genetic information collected that previous generations did not able to have and persuasively encourage other family members to undergo testing. It is important, however, to response any questions about the family history as truthfully as possible. As children grow older, they might have reservations about the family medical history. They can be reassured that, despite the family medical history, there are preventive measures they may be able to take to lower their genetic risk and pass this information to the next generation for reference.
Furthermore, revealing genetic test results could provide a shared financial burden within the family. Individuals that are burdened with a positive mutated gene would undergo treatments and preventive measures of the genetic disorder. As such, a substantial financial burden could occur to individual and his/her family. Yap (2005) emphasizes that individuals with a known genetic disorder are usually not qualified to acquire long term care insurance. Hence, by revealing genetic information to family members, financial burden could be collectively shared and a financial mechanism in planning could be worked out to lessen the individual’s and family’s financial burden. Genetic test results can also provide individuals and his/her family with the capacity to make beneficial life changing decisions based on the information gained from the test. For example, by telling his/her relatives about the genetic information results; life choices and decision could be made, like when should one retire or how much money should be set aside for the future.
In conclusion, revealing genetic test results have a positive emotional, medical and financial effect on both the individual and family members. However, revealing genetic test results raises the conflicts between a collective responsibility and the duty of confidentiality therefore the carrier with an associated genetic risk should be obligated to inform the family members. Yet ethical and social limit the principle of confidentiality. Sometimes, revealing genetic test result is solely based on its objective on whether the implication is good or bad and thus should be taken into great considerations. It would be a waste if such advancement of medicine and technology are not fully explored to benefit the betterment of mankind.
(831 words)

References
1.Cox S.M. et al. (2003). International genetic testing. Genet Med, pp. 176-82.
2.Forrest L. E. et al. (2007). Communicating genetic information in families: A review of guidelines and position papers. European Journal of Human Genetics 15, 612–618 doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201822.
3.Fogarty M. (2001). Genetic testing for people without symptoms of Alzheimer’s healthy patient Genetic Health. Retrieved October 26, 2009 from http://www.genetichealth.com/ALZ_Genetics_Testing_In_Healthy_People.shtml
4.Gaff C. L. et al. (2007). Process and outcome in communication of genetic information within families: A systematic review. European Journal of Human Genetics 15, 999–1011 doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201883.
5.Godard B. et al. (2006). Guidelines for Disclosing Genetic Information to Family Members: From Development to Use. Familial Cancer, Springer Netherlands, Volume 5, Number 1, pp. 103-116. Retrieved October 26, 2009 from available from: https://commerce.metapress.com/content/rj856121383x7053/resource-secured/?target=fulltext.pdf&sid=mmsfiq45ndwqrm2xetuhavud&sh=www.springerlink.com
6.Landsbergen K. et al. (2004). Genetic uptake in BRCA-mutation families is related to emotional and behavioral communication characteristics of index patients. Springer: DOI: 10.1007/s10689-004-7991-2. Abstract retrieved October 30, 2009 from http://www.springerlink.com/content/x13081858r0u14v7/
7.Spaak T. (2006). The idea of a right to genetic privacy. Juridisk tidskrift, pp. 326-339, 2008-09. Abstract retrieved October 26, 2009 from http://ssrn.com/abstract=923548
8.Yap E. (2005). Ethical, legal, social and policy issues in medical genetic testing of relevance to Singapore: personal perspectives. Genetic Testing and Genetic Research, Annex C-2. Retrieved October 26, 2009 from http://www.bioethics-singapore.org/uploadfile/21811%20PMAnnex%20C-2%20Dr%20Eric%20Yap.pdf

Resignation Letter from the quitter, by the quitter, for a friend

2009-12-30T02:03:00.001+08:00

Organiser of Pesta Pantun 2009
National University of Singapore Language Society
NUSSU Secretariat
31 Lower Kent Ridge Road
#05-02
Yusof Ishak House
Singapore 119078

To Whom It May Concern:

With this letter, I hereby submit my resignation from the organizing committee of Pesta Pantun 2009, effective December 27, 2008, due to personal reasons.

Due to certain unavoidable developments in my life, I would be unable to serve Pesta Pantun 2009’s committee any longer. Although it is a tough decision to make, I am convinced that it is in my best interest.

It pains me deeply to write this letter, just it has pained me seeing how a Malay organization in such a state for the last two months. I’m definitely not blaming the present committee however the fact that there are now more than 9 members in the National University of Singapore Language Society running around recruiting members than there are members in our rapidly shrinking Pesta Pantun Committee 2009, might be considered by me to be a bad sign. I personally believe that past clueless management, whose inane directives and a seemingly limitless ability to procrastinate, unmotivated and pass the buck, has made the society what it is today.

I am obviously holding the committee back in making the great strides in pursuit of greater achievements that it definitely deserves, and I feel that you would best served by my departure. I am sorry to say that but I find myself unable to take this society seriously any longer. I'm afraid I can't take being unstrategised, disorganized, and disempowered any more. Whilst I still believe I was right about the organizational anarchy of the NUS Malay Language Society but who am I to rebut, retort and giving smart-ass comment.

I have to admit that my resignation out of the committee was unforgivable and short-sighted. Perhaps my judgement has deserted me. I'm sorry that I have been such a failure, but I hope that my leaving can be seen as the grand gesture that it is meant to be, and that “Never shall I forget the days I spent with you. Continue to be my friend, as you will always find me.” Maybe I'm just not a "team player”. Thank you for having me as a part of your team. I wish you good luck and have fun.

I hope with your mandate, you’re able to scatter your conflicting ideas throughout the organization and optimistically some of them will sprout, miraculously save the organization and bring it to its epitome of organizational stability and accomplishment.

Yours in exasperation,
Afiq
Ex-Bendahari

P.S. “Never shall I forget the days I spent with you. Continue to be my friend, as you will always find me.” By Ludwig van Beethoven

Personal Statement (Optometry)

2009-12-22T04:01:00.000+08:00

According to the statistics from the Singapore National Eye Centre, myopia is a rapidly worsening public health problem in Singapore. Moreover, surveys have indicated that myopia afflicts 25% of 7 year olds, 33% of 9 year olds, 50% of 12 year olds and more than 80% of 18 year old males in Singapore (SNEC, 2004). It has been proven that myopia is a degenerative disease with age. If untreated. These have resulted in escalating concerns about problems in educating, screening and treating both in our ageing and maturing population. I foresee that more and more qualified optometrists are in demand to prevent and correct refractive errors, as well as to detect, diagnose and manage eye disorders in the future. With this, I personally think that optometry is a highly field to be explored and researched on especially in the local context.

An important reason why I am interested in studying Optometry is the career prospect. Although I am equipped with a diploma in Biomedical Engineering, I am confident that I have the necessary skills, attributes and commitment to complete this demanding course. During my final year project, I did a project entitled ““Analysis of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy” (Rahman et al, 2006; Acharya et al, In Press). This project has enriched and exposed me to the health sciences field especially in an evidence-based research. Moreover, my engineering background could perhaps enhance the education, training and experience that come along studying with this degree. This degree will train myself to become a professional optometrist. I will learn how to examine eyes, test sight, give advice on visual problems, prescribe and dispense spectacles and contact lenses and recommend other treatments or visual aids. With an increasing healthcare institutions sprouting in Singapore, I really hope that I could be part of the healthcare professional sphere in educating on the misconceptions of eye disorders particularly myopia.

Another reason is that I like interacting with people on a daily basis. The strong emphasis on hands-on optometry practice, such as refraction and clinical practice and internships are what I am looking for in a job. I read on the internet about vision-related social organization whereby they went to various developing countries to educate, diagnose and manage eye disorders. In a nutshell, it is actually a more practical sense in fulfilling my ambition in helping others as well as gaining experience by travelling around the world. Being a 24 years old, I know what I wanted in life, which is to get a good education that enable myself to contribute back to society. My interpersonal skills through social communication and interactions have improved through my growing up years. My final year project helped me to be approachable and to work closely with patients while collecting my diabetic data. Not only that, my industry attachment programme at Alexandra Hospital which I am responsible in provisioning breakdown services, preventive maintenance and commissioning new equipment provided me with the analytical, interpersonal communication and computations skills which I could implement during my study as an optometrist.

The last reason is my love of science and aspiration for a medical career is reflected in my polytechnic choice where good time management, self motivated study skills and ability to cope with stress and pressure are essential. Modules which I took have helped me further my interest and develop my analytical skills, mathematics helps my problem solving skills helping me to work logically and the NgeeAnn’s integrated computer environment gives me a valuable insight into the rapidly developing technological world where computers are crucial. I believe all the qualities I have developed through my courses are essential for any good optometrist.

In conclusion, it is evident that optometrist is a vast field to be explored in Singapore; therefore the demand of optometrist should be well received. The career prospect, interaction with people and the love for science should be my good testament in being a good optometrist. I hope the University of Manchester selection committee could deliberate, evaluate and weight my reasons for application in the Bachelor of Science (with Honours) in Optometry Programme. I look forward to the challenges and range of experiences that awaits me in higher education and university life. Thank you.

References

1.Acharya R.U., Rahman, M.A., Aziz Z., Tan P.H., Ng E.Y.K., Yu W., Law C., Subramaniam T., Wong Y.S., Sum C.F. (In Press) Computer-based identification of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy, Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology (JMMB), USA.
2.Rahman, M.A., Aziz Z., Acharya R.U., Tan P.H., Natarajan K., Ng E.Y.K, Law C., Subramaniam T., Wong Y.S. (2006) Analysis of plantar pressure in diabetic type 2 subjects with and without neuropathy, Innovations and Technology in Biology and Medicine (ITBM-RBM), France, 27(2), 46-55. Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science
3.Singapore National Eye Centre (SNEC). Childhood Myopia. (2004). Retrieved December 2, 2009, from http://www.snec.com.sg/eye/myopia.asp

Surveillance technology such as RFID (radio frequency identification) should not be used to track people (e.g. human implants and RFID tags on people.

2009-10-27T02:39:00.003+08:00

The systematic investigation or monitoring of the actions or communications of one or more persons has become imperative in a rapidly technological developing world (Greisler et al, 2007). As the random acts of destruction by human beings increase, the sphere of freedom reduces, be it in homes, offices, stores or even communal areas and educational institutions (Laurant, 2003). Human beings are practically living in a surveillance environment. Like the saying goes, “people can run but they definitely can’t hide” from surveillance encounters. Life revolves around surveillance technology, virtually from dawn to dusk. Living under such scrutinizing eyes of surveillance technology has disrupted in ways as intrusion of individual privacy, uncertainty of surveillance technology and generate an uncomfortable feeling of being watched hereby proposing that surveillance technology should not be used to track people.
Firstly, surveillance technology is an intrusion of individual privacy. According to a former supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, the right to be let alone is indeed the beginning of all freedoms (Konvitz, 2003). If privacy has been infringed, an individual will lose his or her free will, independency and individuality. In the Singapore context, privacy law is not pertinent; however in the United Nation Declaration of Human Rights maintains that private spaces away from the prying public eyes should be made significant (Laurant, 2003). With this, privacy is a basic need and right for a human being to have. It has been argued that “if we are not doing anything wrong, we do not have anything to fear.” Sun Microsystems CEO Scott McNealy further reiterated this point by saying “You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it” (Herbert, 2008). However, Schneir (2003, p. 289) further refutes that, “it is an inherent human right and a requirement for maintaining the human conditions with dignity and respect.” Infringing on someone’s privacy rights may pose legal liability if surveillance technology becomes intrusive when the results are at risk of leaking out.
In addition, the effectiveness of using surveillance technology is uncertain. For instance, the city of Cambridge, Massachusetts recently voted to ban the use of surveillance cameras because it concluded that the potential treats to invasion of privacy and individual civil liberties outweighed the purported benefits (ACLU, 2009 February 18). As stated by a recent study in San Francisco, California, it was concluded that cameras failed in reducing violent crime thus it was unsafe. Moreover, in The Los Angeles times, the National Institute of Standards and Technology found that digital evaluation of photographs of the same individuals taken 18 months apart generated fallacious denunciation by computers 43 percent of the time (ACLU, 2001 July 11). Law enforcers using these technologies will be questioned on the reliability and credibility of the outcome of the result. With this, surveillance technology might just be another white elephant – set up and maintenance costs are monumental but the objective is not being met.
Furthermore, surveillance technology is often abused for personal or public gains without seeing the fact that it is morally unjustifiable (Monmonier, 2002). These technologies are often abused for personal purposes such as voyeurism (Benny, 2002) or to target individuals on the basis of race, gender or other classification (ACLU, 2009 February 18). These show that even in the good name of surveillance technology, there has been misuse of power. Consequently, banning these technologies protects our information from abuses, misguided agendas and deviant motives. Reflecting on these evidences, there is a rightful reason to assume that future individuals or groups might misuse surveillance powers for reaping personal and public gains (Moore, 2000).
Similarly, surveillance technology generates an uncomfortable feeling of being watched in people. It is a proven that people act differently when they think that others are watching them. This might hinder self exploration, creative expressive and intellectual inquiry (Moore, 2000). Williamson et al (2000) even suggests that it might even snowball into detrimental psychological implications. In addition, surveillance technology shows false sense of security which could cause individuals to be much less watchful than individuals would have been devoid of a surveillance system in place. A video surveillance might not be functioning efficiently if the system is not actively monitored and cared for. Furthermore, monitoring people indicates a lack of trust, thus decreasing people’s morale (Greisler et al, 2007). This is not beneficial especially in a workplace and school, which will have negative effect on employee’s and student’s work performance respectively.
In conclusion, the factors mentioned above brought about many negative effects in the aspects of personal and social concerns. With that, it is clear that surveillance technology should not be used to track people.
(764 words)
References

1.Benny, E. (2002, September 9). Surveillance Society – Don’t look now, but you may find you are being watched. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved Sep 10, 2009 from http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/09/09/BU.DTL
2.Cameras in Pioneer Park Pose Privacy Problems Won't Reduce Crime. (2009, February 18). American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). Retrieved September 24, 2009, from http://www.aclu.org/privacy/spying/39142prs20090218.html
3.Greisler D., Stupak R. J. (2007). Handbook of technology management in public administration. CRC Press: Taylor and Francis Group
4.Herbert, G. (2008, Aug 13). Zero privacy. Guardian. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/aug/13/privacy.privacy
5.Konvitz M. R. (2003). Fundamental liberties of a free people: Religion, Speech, Press, Assembly. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Cornell University Press
6.Laurant C. (2003). Privacy & Human Rights: An International Survey of privacy laws and developments. Retrieved September 24, 2009, from http://www.privacyinternational.org/survey/phr2003/index.htm
7.Monmonier M. S. (2002). Spying with maps: surveillance technologies and the future of privacy. London: The University of Chicago Press.
8.Moore A. D. (2000). Employee monitoring and Computer technology: Evaluative Surveillance v. Privacy. Business Ethnics Quarterly, Vol 10, No 3. pp. 697-709. Retrieved September 24, 2009, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3857899
9.Proliferation of Surveillance Devices Threatens Privacy. (2001, July 11). American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Retrieved September 24, 2009, from http://www.aclu.org/privacy/spying/14871prs20010711.html
10.Schneir B. (2003). Beyond fear: thinking sensibly about security in an uncertain world. United States of America: Copernicus Books
11.Williamson R.A., Nickens P.R. (2000). Science and Technology in Historic Preservation. New York: Klumer Academic/Plenum Publishers

Say or Not to Say !

2009-03-01T23:31:00.000+08:00
SAY ALSO DON’T LISTEN

LISTEN ALSO DON’T UNDERSTAND

DON’T UNDERSTAND ALSO DON’T WANT TO ASK

ASK ALSO DON’T DO

DO ALSO DO WRONG

WRONG ALSO DON’T WANT TO ADMIT

ADMIT ALSO DON’T WANT TO CORRECT

CORRECT ALSO NOT HAPPY

NOT HAPPY ALSO DON’T WANT TO SAY

Grammar Online Week 2: PowerPoint presentations on sentences and clause structures

2009-02-08T19:51:00.000+08:00
- Effectiveness of practice: (describe here what you have learned)

For week 2, we did a grammar Guide to understanding Grammar and Writing skills. These guides are made available with PowerPoint slides for easy illustration and appreciation. I focused on two weak areas – run on sentences and diagramming sentences.
For run on sentences, the writer gave a good analogy of by associating an independent clause as an independently operated train headed west and getting connected to another train headed east as well. According to the writer, three scenarios could happened which resulted in a run on sentences. Personally, these run on traps could be freed with proper understanding of the context of the sentence. To avoid run out sentences, three things could be done. Firstly, we could insert a period and start a new sentence. Secondly, we can insert a comma plus a coordinating conjunction. Lastly, we can use a semicolon.
On the other hand, diagramming sentence provides a way of illustrating the sentence structure. Although the way the writer explained it in the slides are quite confusing with the introduction of slanted and vertical lines. I think the gist of the whole slides is to understand the entire sentence and view it in its simplest form. The simplest form is basically the subject-verb-predicate relationship.

- Additional grammar work done in the area

Personally, I think the notes that were given to us adequate in covering sentence and clause structures. In these PowerPoint slides given, these grammatical understanding are being illustrated in great detail and examples are shown to perpetuate understanding and appreciation.

Reflection: What have I learnt in week 2

2009-02-08T19:49:00.000+08:00
Things that I have learned:

For week 2, we are still concentrating on identifying grammatical errors through text editing. I learned new grammatical terms like determiner and modal verb. Determiner refers to a noun modifier that expresses the reference of a noun or noun phrase while modal verb refers to words that associated with notions of possibility and necessity such as would and should. We went through several examples in identifying and correcting sentence/clause structures ; grammatical tenses. Through text editing, I learned to read the entire passage first to get a gist of it. Next, I should always read before and after the sentence that I am suppose to edit in order to see the sentence structure and its tenses used. After sensitising ourselves with grammar, we moved on learning fundamental elements that make up a paragraph. Basically, a paragraph consists of topic sentence, supporting sentence, example and concluding sentence. In order to write a good paragraph, three things are necessary – planning, logical and cohesiveness. We did a couple of exercises on identifying paragraph structures. At the end of it, we began writing a paragraph on a given topic and were marked by Miss Serene based on planning, grammatical tenses, cohesiveness and whether it is logical.
In addition, I was taught to recognize several common errors in clauses and sentences. Although the terminologies of such errors are very complicated, Miss Serene’s good analytical ability to explain in Basic English helps me to understand and appreciates such terms. There are basically six common errors in clauses and sentences which are sentence fragment, run on sentences, mixed construction, faulty subject –verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement and ambiguous reference & ambiguous word. These terms could be applied in writing sentences to give a quick review of common grammar problems. I am trying to do the self study on Eye on Edit 2 to allow myself how much I understand and allow myself to work on my weak areas.
In the 2nd half of the tutorial, we were asked to do a 2nd draft of the essay on areas of weaknesses. This 2nd draft should be corrected based on the grammatical tenses learned as well as comments by Miss Serene. Based on the marking, my areas of weaknesses are word choice, constructing long sentences, missing subjects, subject verb agreement and over usage of certain words. Although my areas of weaknesses are broad, I think I am able to tackle easily two areas of weaknesses - constructing long sentences and over usage of certain words.
In conclusion, the analytical skills of identifying and correcting errors are quite a handful, I personally hope that with more practice and hard work, I am able to understand and appreciate the English language.

Things that i have difficulties with:

I probably have difficulty in text editing. To be able to identify and correct such errors are quite confusing for some sentences available in the examples. However applying the basic elements of clauses like Subject, verb and object made it easier to identify such errors. I will try to do self study assignment to practise and perhaps buy a text editing book recommended by Miss Serene to enhance my text editing ability.

Grammar Online Week 1: Sentence and clause structure

2009-02-08T19:46:00.003+08:00
- Effectiveness of practice: (describe here what you have learned)

For week 1, the grammar online worked on sentences and clause structure. A very detailed explanation was being shown online. I only worked on my weak areas in identifying sentence structure and punctuations. There are a couple of things which are new to me.
Firstly, a dependent clause is also called a subordinate clause. In addition, clauses are also classified as restrictive and non-restrictive clauses. In our tutorial, we defined independent clauses as being able to stand alone by itself. In the grammar online, it gives in-depth meaning of an independent clause.
Independent clauses are also known as non-restrictive clause. It is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. It gave good explanations with example to relate its meaning. In addition, it gives an explanation on the various usages of punctuations such period, semicolon and hyphen. A part that I took great understanding is about the elliptical clauses.
Personally, I do make such grammatical mistake in the sense that the sentence I constructed is missing a relative pronoun. Usually I am unaware that anything is missing. However after reading this passage, I am able to at least guess from the context of my sentence.

- Additional grammar work done in the area

Two quizzes that I took are Identifying Independent Clauses and Identifying Independent Clauses II. I think it is quite a good practice to be able to do it and able to get feedback instantaneously.

Reflection: What have I learnt in week 1

2009-02-08T19:45:00.003+08:00
1) Things that I have learned:

For Week 1, I learned four important things. Firstly, we are taught to identify grammatical errors with examples. In order to identify such errors, I learnt the fundamental of the English language. Basically in the English language, it is consists of clauses and sentences. Simple sentence consists of one clause, which contains a subject and a verb. A complicated sentence consists of more than one clause.
Subject, verb, subject complement, adverbial, object and object complement are basic elements of clause. These elements usually do not appear together in the same clause. There are basically the five basic sentence patterns in English as mentioned in the notes. In order to identify basic elements of clauses, simple questions can be asked to recognize them. Subject is the element of a clause that performed the action of who or what. Verb is the action that is taken by the subject. However, verbs that are transitive requires both a direct subject; one or more objects. A Subject complement is the element that gives more information about the subject. Adverbials give more information about how (interrogative), when (time), where (place), why (reason) an action is performed.
There are two types of clauses – independent and dependent clauses. Independent clauses are group of words that could stand on its own whereas dependent clauses are group of words that are needed to attach to another clause to complete its meaning. In addition, I learnt different types of sentences. There are basically three types of sentences – Simple, compound and complex. Sentences are classified by the number of types of finite clauses used.
I learnt that in order to avoid confusion, short and simple sentences should be constructed. Long complex sentences should be avoided. Writing in a concise manner is important to avoid the essay from diverting it to become long winded and draggy.

2) Things that I have difficulties with:

With Miss Serene’s passion and detailed teaching, I am able to understand most of it. However the technicality of grammar can be quite convoluted when a sentence becomes complex. The complexity of a sentence can be simplified with a good understanding of the basic elements as mentioned above. I hope to be able to rectify my difficulties before leaving class.

Different types of Students

2008-11-21T01:49:00.000+08:00

Prejudice and Discrimination

2008-11-09T21:54:00.003+08:00
What do you think are some of the causes of prejudice and discrimination? Is education (or the lack of it) a factor? What about an individual’s upbringing?

Prejudice and discrimination stems from an individual’s narrow-mindedness, fear and ignorance usually on the basis of race, colour, religion, gender, place of origin or ancestry. Prejudice and discrimination usually resides within the individual itself. Some of the prejudice and discrimination which could manifests itself are against a certain sex (sexism), sexual orientation (homosexuality), religion and race.

From my point of view, the way an individual’s thinks play the most important part in being a prejudice and discrimation against someone or something. An individual could cause a prejudice and discrimation in many forms such as ethnic slurs, offensive remarks, physical assault, physical intimidation, mocking stereotypes, exclusion as well as social segregation. What actually brought about these forms of racial discrimination? From what I felt, the feeling of adequacy, stereotyping, child’s upbringing, past experiences, peer pressure, ignorance, fear and media creates the basis of prejudice and discrimination.

Firstly, feeling of adequacy. The feeling of adequency is usually causes a discrimination against a certain gender. Men who are of lower social status tends to be looked down on by their opposite sex counterparts which could discrimate them in a sense whereby they thought that people with lower social status in terms of their income are often stupid and good-for-nothing people which in turn causes sexism . Another example which I heard is that women are stupid because they tends to be indecisive and incompetent while they are in love whereas men are easily manipulated as long as their balls are being hold and their heart and mind will follow soon after. For heaven sake, this are all not true due to the fact that these types of comments are often associated as a form of pigeon-hole based on false or incomplete information.

Stereotyping is another cause of prejudice and discrimination because it’s a form of prejudice whereby we tends to form a certain kind of image or fixed information which usually on false information. Usually the result of this type of prejudice causes a discrimination against a race or religion. For example, after 11 September 2001, people tend to have this misconception that Muslims or people with an Arab origin are often associated with terrorists. Another example is that we knew that India is a third world country but it is not really true that all Indians are of lesser race than us due to the third-world class status. One prime example is that the only thing India is good for is they provide lower cost overhead for Singapore companies to save a buck.

In addition, Upbringing plays a part of prejudice and discrimination Most of the time, parents influence the child from the way they comment on other people. For example, if the children are from a broken family background, the children have a bad attitude towards life and so on. If we think it in a rational kind of way, these rumours are actually not true because there is some example whereby even if the children are from a broken family, they still succeeded in life. Another example is about inter racial or religion marriage. Parents don’t think that this is kind of appropriate due to the fact that they think that its very difficult for the individual to inter relate as well as to cope with the changes in their life especially if the individual needs to convert their religion.

All and above, a past experience is the next cause of prejudice and discrimation. Experiences in this case are usually very bad. This past experience could have happened in school, workplace or even at during their childhood days. Racist jokes could be one of the reasons whereby as a student they are often discriminated or look down upon due to their academic performance and behaviour.

Being ignorance is another cause. Ignorance is bliss but without knowing much about the outside world makes us like a frog in a well. For examples, if we were to see a woman who wears skimpy clothes, we tend to think that they use their physical stature to get attention because beyond those “traits’, they are vapid and moronic whores with nothing to offer to society. This can’t be true because the woman having doing some kind of modeling which permits her to wear such clothes for the show.

Media is anther thing which could cause prejudice and discrimination. For example, recently a video clip from a comedy by Russell Peter have been circulating around which makes fun of different races in discrimatory way. Since the media have a strong influence in our daily life, we tends to follow their thinking and make fun of it even though we knew that it is wrong in the place to make fun of other races or religions.

All in all, prejudice and discrimination are part and parcels of our daily life whether we like it or not. In my opinion is that we should look on each of racial or ethnic groups positive traits or behaviour which could benefits our country as a multi-racial, multi-ethnic, multi-religious, multi-lingual mix and yet proved ourselves as Singaporean first in a country’s whereby it shows our racial harmony and national unity.

How do you think relations among people of different ethnic groups and religions in Singapore could be fostered or improved?

Back in 21st July 1964, racial harmony in Singapore was at stake. It was probably the worst racial riot ever happened in Singapore. It was a clash between Chinese chauvinism and Malay fundamentalism, instigated by the UMNO’s extremist. Does this incident teach us to be tolerance and fostering good relationships among people of the different ethnic groups and religions in Singapore? In my own opinion, we can achieve this by having a better understanding among the Singaporean and giving equal scope to the speakers of all the languages or religions. We should not despise each other due to language, skin colour or religion. I do not believe that any one race is superior to the others and the government should take stern measures to make sure all races receive equal treatment. The process of fostering racial cohesiveness and prevention of any racial polarization could be done at different level.

Firstly, it can be done at home, in school and lastly at community level.
Firstly, parents should invite friends, colleagues or neighbours of another race to celebrate their festive season. Parents should not be the “racial polarizer” whereby wanting their children to mingle around with someone of their same language, skin colour or religion. Parents should promote their children to foster friendships, cultivate emotional ties and develop a sense of commitment to one another as fellow Singaporean and not as a specific race or religion. Furthermore, parents should not stereotype on a each races and gives slanderous comments based on their self-serving standards which hinders the balance of racial harmony. At home, it makes no difference for us that our next door neighbour prays in a different manner than we do. We should be acceptance that religion is a man’s own business and he/she has the right to practice whatever religions he wishes as long as it is not against the common good or against the norms of someone else religion.

In national school especially, racial cohesiveness have already been implemented through a common curriculum, share a common experience of growing up, studying, playing, singing the national anthem, and reciting the pledge together. Furthermore, every year racial harmony day was held to strengthen multi-racialism. Not only that, English has been used as a lingual franca so that children of the different races can relate and communicate with each other despite our diverse backgrounds. Festive occasions such as Hari Raya, Deepavali and Chinese New can be celebrated further promote racial harmony values and often teachers organized it in a multi-cultural kind of celebrations. Apart from all the fun, textbooks should play a role by putting insight into one another's cultures and beliefs. It is not difficult to find someone from another ethnic group picking up skills which does not correlate with his or her culture. In addition, the minorities should be mixed with the mainstream to provide a closer bond as well as interaction to know one another.

In the community, the harmonious interaction between peoples of diverse backgrounds could be seen in community centre. Mayor of each division of Singapore as well as grassroots leaders tend to assimilate people from different race n religions to get involved in a certain of programme such as a holiday scheme or get together or merely a festive occasion to celebrate, to get together and shared their traditions, customs, belief and practices. Community centre usually conducted seminars and well as talk that will trash out the differences between the races pertaining to cause. Language differences is another difference but in order to understand each race, community centre do conducts classes in different languages to avoid any misunderstanding leading to accusations of racial discrimination. The government had set up an inter-religious harmony circle (IRCC) whereby each religious national body such as MUIS nominates a representative to bring about opportunity for the different religious group to work together and allowed a greater understand among the various religious body.

Hopefully in the new future, Singaporean can understand the cultures of the other different racial groups and religions. This would help us learn to respect the beliefs of the racial groups which in turn inculcate mutual respect in us. With this harmonious environment, peace and stability in the country and contribute to Singapore's progress.

Physics is hard! Life is even harder...

2008-11-05T22:37:00.005+08:00

I started with an undergraduate programme in physics feeling optimistic, excited and relatively happy in getting into such a prestigious and well respected course. However after a couple of weeks, I started to yearn for the creative and mentally stimulating debates I used to have during my Secondary and Polytechnic days. I realized that it was the endless interactions that appealed to me, rather than the rigidity of studying such conceptual and highly intensive subject.

As I drifted into the academic year, I have doubts whether I should continue with this course. First and foremost, the interest of studying physics is diminishing as weeks passed. I was feeling disappointed in physics after a few lectures that are being conducted. It doesn’t seems like it is all that dignified and creditable study of things that encompasses the large and the small, the old and the new, which is what I had imagined or at least hoped it to be. Instead, I was subjected to tedious mathematics and mind- boggling problems of classical mechanics involving motions, momentum, collision, center of mass, forces, torques and etc. I was hopping to learn about the fundamental laws of nature, and gain insight into such real life application and its philosophical implications. None of the things I learned and see so far seemed to be relevant in this context; consequently I was starting to dread that my understanding and depiction of physics was far too idealistic in nature. Sadly, my passion for physics is being struck on me like a two headed knife through my heart.

Secondly, it is the gradual build up of pressures that make me question my ability to cope this year and perhaps consecutively years to come. With that, I’m afraid getting a good 1st degree would just be a dream. Come from a hardened, worldly, self-criticism person who has learned life's painful lessons through personal experience, my point is that the above statement and justification seems true.

Then I had second thoughts about my chosen career path, I feel that although the study of physics provides a good foundation in analytical understanding and rational thinking which could apply to the working world, however personally it lacks the basic of human interactions that comes along with it such as communicating effectively, working constructively in a group and being a social butterfly in different situations. I’m not trying to undermine physics but it is definitely challenging, often frustrating, sometimes excruciating and most of the time satisfying if could solve a problem after putting much effort, time and understanding into it. Then again if we looked at the various career prospects, employers will recruit any graduates from any disciplines but employing someone with core skills, such as research, communication and organizational skills, combined with the intellect required to study at degree level as well as vocational or personal experiences that goes along with it are essential in the company’s growth. As a result, I’m determined to undertake a new subject that I really liked and beneficial to my job scope.

At this stage, I began to realize that I’ve lost interests in the study of physics and started thinking what I’d rather be doing. A breadth History Module HY2206 – China’s Imperial Past which I took this semester has opened up my mind to greater aspects of the human civilization that perpetuate my thirst for more intellectually and engaging stimulation. The module acts as a social lubricant that enriches my life as the skills I obtained collectively from both my experience in study as well as social skills of an undergraduate. The studying of this module gives me the determination, enthusiasm, flexibility and drive to deliver good results. Into the bargain, I become conscious about gaining research skills such as managing, interpreting and analyze information which are core principles for employment in a knowledge based economy. The module cultivates my outmost appreciation and greater understanding of the past and its application and difficulty that goes along with it whether in the present and perhaps in the future. Not only that I did a holistic search on my subject of study such as researching my options to get a detailed picture as possible in being clear about what I did and did not like about my previous course of study, read prospectuses carefully, visit NUS’s website and talk to academic mentors and friends about this.

In addition to that, acquiring detailed knowledge of a subject and undertaking a depth research in evaluating information based on personal opinions, arguments & criticism and communicate my findings through oral presentation or argumentative essays are something that I love to do. These skills could be specific to that profession but the skills and background knowledge may be transferable to other professions.

In conclusion, although all of us have different educational tour in attaining what we wanted in life, I think it is best if I could unlearn and relearn things that I really wanted and proceed from there. Personally Knowledge doesn’t come to us just by reading a book, being told by others or years of experience but a combination of the 3. All I can do now is to do my best and be willing to face the circumstances courageously and optimistically whatever comes in my way.

"A major determinant of whether you will succeed as a Physics major is if you possess the ability to ignore those people who will try to dishearten, discourage and demoralize you by telling you that you aren't good enough."

My Virtual Pet

2007-03-10T18:15:00.000+08:00

adopt your own virtual pet!

GiViNg In ?, ShOuLd YoU AlWaYs GiVe YoUr GaL WhAt ShE WaNtS?

2006-05-28T02:46:00.000+08:00
Ever read the biblical story about Adam and Eve? To make a long story short: God created Adam. God created Eve. Eve wanted forbidden fruit. Adam abided. Both were banished from paradise.

The moral of the story? Adam gave what eve wanted and paid the price. Okay okay, I admit, I am skewing things a little with half-truths, but giving in to a woman’s whims and desires simply when she asked for it is suicide to your love life.

What’re they (gals) looking for? True, gals look for guys as providers. They swoon over the strong and the silence. They adore the broad shoulders that they can lean on, the big hands that bring in the food and the dough. That is why nature made the male species the stronger sex. (Watching all that discovery channel does help). But like the lion that lords over his brood of lionesses, the man must rise above the ladies in order to prove their worth. Submitting to the female’s want, tell her she can lord over her partner, an authority that she does not value.

A girl friend once explained a strange rationale to me. She had three ex-boyfriends – all three pampered her with gifts and obeyed her wishes to the T. she ditched tall three. Yet, now she is happily with a guy who has never bought her flowers, who rarely says yes when she asks him to go on a shopping trip with her, or simply put, seems less desirable than the three ex-boyfriends put together. The reason for her choice –she feels a sense of security with this guy. She admitted, “Women are weird creatures. They need to be refused, retorted or even rebuked to feel loved.”

In any case, women do not necessarily know what they want. “What a Girl wants”, as the song goes, is a mystery to both the men and the ladies. Somehow, the female brain is designed to think, not to get to a conclusion.

To prove my point, join a woman in her shopping trip. She may hate working out in a gym, but the moment she steps into a mall, boy, can she power walk! In the boutique, blouses, tube-tops and spaghetti-strap tops change hands faster than shares in the brokerage. In most instances, she leaves the boutique empty-handed hours later, not knowing what to get. If she actually makes a purchase, chances are, it hangs in the wardrobe untouched for a long, long time. Why then bother giving her what she wants, when she doesn’t even know what that is?

Here is my brotherly advice: Don’t get me wrong, guys. I’m saying you can keep those wallets safely in your pockets and never take them out for your gal agaim. You still have to please the lady in order to get her. According to a website that dispenses dating advice, a man should never give a woman everything she wants because doing that will leave her with nothing to discover, nothing to chase, no mystery.

My take? Give woman what they NEED, not WANT. When they ask for something, refuse it. When they plead, enjoy the moment. Only when they grovel at your feet, then you know whatever they are requesting is a necessity to them, not a frivolous desire. Make them thirst for their desires, so that when they finally get it from you, the victory they think they win is sweeter.

Less is more. And the women will love you for it. Trust me.

GuYs! PlEaSe LeArN To SaY NO To YoUr GiRlFrIeNd… StAnDiNg Up To YoUr GaL MaKeS YoU MaN? WiNkS

2006-05-17T23:05:00.000+08:00
I was taking the MRT (Mass Rapid Transit) to Jurong point to have my “last supper” of meepok noodle the other day and saw this young couple in the same carriage as me. They looked very sweet together, their hands interlocking. The girl was an exceptional good-looker, (which explained why I noticed the couple in the first place). Already born with exquisite facial features of an angel, she dressed well like a model – a tight blue top with short, almost skimpy skirt, showing off her long, slender legs (Howls!!). The guy had only an average face, and his tight-fitting T-shirt revealed an unflattering paunch.
In my mind, I was praising the guy, for scoring such a babe with such plain looks. The girl asked her boyfriend in a gruff voice, “Can you hold my bag for me?”
Without a word, the guy just took her pink, floral handbag, and slipped over his shoulder.
I took a second look. And a third. Maybe a fourth and a fifth too.
I stared so long, that the lovers as they exited the train the next stop, gave me dirty looks. They probably thought I was some crazy fellow.
I did almost go berserk on the man, “what is wrong with you?!” I wanted to scream after him, but mustering all of my willpower, I barely restrained myself.
There are some things a man should do and there are some things a man should never do.
Holding your girlfriend’s bag is a big NO.
Worse, to do it upon request of your girlfriend should be a crime, punishable by caning.
These days, womankind has been asking a lot from their male partners. They tell their boyfriend to carry their handbags for them, buy tau huay from Geylang and deliver it to their home as they put on their whitening masks, or even order them to stay away their buddies, and accompany them to the malls instead.
Just a couple of weeks ago, I called a buddy if he wanted to meet up for dinner for some male bonding before I went to my Basic Military Training.
“Cannot,” he replied in a squeaky voice, “out with girlfriend.”
“How about tomorrow?”
“Cannot. Helping my girlfriend collect her skirt from the tailor in Queensway.”
“How about the following day?’
“Wait ah, I ask her. (Pause for five seconds.)
Cannot. She said I’ve been going out too often and wants me stay at home to rest.”
I wanted to do a Russell Crow and throw my phone at him.
Of course, in any relationship, there is bound to be some sacrifice, some give and take. But these days, the girls seem to be getting the upper hand, so much so that guys practically bending their backs 360 degrees to accommodate their wishes.
Maybe the guys have taken the government’s call for better service way too seriously.
But remember: The customer may be always right, but the girlfriend’s not paying.
In any case, the ladies like to be lord over. Which sane girl wants a wimp as her boyfriend? As Britney spears rightly speak for all women, “I’m slave for you.”
We need to begin a campaign immediately, to teach these men to say no to every whim and fancy of their girlfriends. We need to regain our status in society, and estate our claim as the stronger sex.
Now guys, go practice in front of the mirror. The next time you are told to do something you don’t want to, say the magic word. NO!

DoEs ThE PeRfEcT LoVeR ExIsT? SiGh ! SiGh ! SiGh !

2006-05-14T12:05:00.000+08:00
My pet question: do you believe that there’s a perfect someone out there for you?

From these informing polls I got from the people I spoke to, the answer is clear – an overwhelming majority that I received firmly believe in the existence of a perfect lover (meaning 100% perfect in every way). Not only that, some also believe that it is possible to change who is not quite “up-to-standard” to the ideal in their mind. But here’s the shocker: for those who have had a relationship or two, and have experienced break-ups due to whatever reasons, they think that the perfect lover is an illusion. The truth is, they would be very happy if they could find someone who can match 60% of their expectations.

Personally, my definition of a “perfect lover” sits somewhere between the overly optimistic 100% and the pessimistic 60%. I think it is good enough if I could find someone who has 80% to 90% of what I look for in a partner. No one is perfect, so I am not looking for someone who is made from an exact cookie-mould of my dreams. But what if she is just 40% perfect? Does it mean I should jump at the chance of a relationship with her and then hope to change her into my perfect lover?

I won’t and I can’t. The perfect lover is not achieved by forcing an unsuitable partner into drastic changes to meet my needs. I don’t jump into a relationship, just because she’s available and interested! I spend time searching around and thinking of the kind of partner who will suit me best. Hopefully i will find someone who matches my expectation more closely. If you guys out there think it’s easier to just grab someone and change her into what you want, I’m sorry to disappoint you with the truth. Not only is the process going to be tough, it will also end up with two totally frustrated people; you and her or vice versa

It really doesn’t matter which aspect of my partner that I am dissatisfied with. However, i should try to stop her from smoking, from frequencing certain places that I disapprove of, or from dressing in a way that disagree with me. Changing someone way of life isn’t easy in spite of this in the same way as long as she thinks she doesn’t need to change or improve on herself, I’ll never succeed in moulding her into my ideal woman. I always remember, she has to want to change herself in the first place. If not, the change would not take place, even she loves me.

You may wonder, what hurt can it cause from a little nagging on our part just to change her into little Miss Perfect? Here’s what: i spend day after day, month after month, and year after tear of pushing her to change – only to realise that she still has that same irritating trait that she had from day one. Or that she would do as i say when I am around, but revert to her old self when she thinks I am not looking. I get disappointed in her; all the time and saliva spent on explaining why the change was necessary and beneficial to her, and yet she ignores me like I am a microscopic algae. For example, i try to get her to quit smoking. But she tells me that her lungs are fine, that nicotine doesn’t harm her, and by the way, she wants to break up with me because she has found someone who likes her the way she is. (What a bummer!)

And she’s right (about the last thing). everyone deserves to be loved for the way he or she is. Before entering into any romantic relationship now, I shall ask myself if I am happy with her. While it’s true that i could all do with some improvement, it is essential that i like my partner for who she is right now (so clique har). Don’t buy into the notion that i can get her to change herself once we both fall in love. For now, she isn’t what I am looking for, thus i set her free for some other lucky guy, and i can continue with my search. But now if i truly like a girl, I would work at really appreciating her instead of starting on my ‘educating’ mission. The pure 100% perfect lover exists, but only in fairytales. And that’s where it should stay.

PlEaSe FoRgIvE Me

2006-04-07T23:10:00.000+08:00

I’m Sorry
for my passion,
I’m sorry.
For your misery,
I’m sorry.
And for this short love affair,
I’m sorry.

I’m sorry…
for making you cry,
for breaking your heart,
and for saying the words that I never should have said.

I was wrong.
When I said I loved you,
I was wrong.
When I said I needed you,
i was wrong.
And when I said I couldn’t live without you,
I was wrong.
How did I?

How did I make you believe
what we had was special?
How did I make you dream
spending every waking moment with me?
How did I make you tremble
every time we kissed?
How did I give you life
every time you gazed into my eyes?
How could it all have seemed so right
only for it to be so wrong in the end?

I deceived you.

I made you feel free,
only to lock you up again
inside the same cold cage.
Left you there in solitude
with nothing but
a few faint memories.

It’s all over.
Finally your confusion sets in.
thinking about the good times,
you search for the answers.
Asking yourself the simple question
of why our love was not to be.
Lost in the absence of reality,
you gaze around the empty cage
not realizing the simple truth…

It’s all over.
I have made up my mind,
and it’s all over!

No more nights of passion,
no more days of bliss,
no more of us…

P.S If I could sit across the porch from God, I'd thank Him for lending you to me, as you were my destiny.

SuMmArY & ReFlEcTiOn Of My 13 WeEkS InDuStRiAl AtTaChMeNt At AlExAnDrA HoSpItAl

2005-12-18T17:12:00.000+08:00
- Summary

First of all, I would like to raise my glass in a toast to all that has been accomplished on my 1st half of my industrial attachment at Alexandra Hospital, and to the learning yet to come. Industrial attachment has helped me to see the world in a different perspective. Without this attachment, my knowledge regarding the outside world is only limited to just theoretical application and doing experiments in our lab is definitely not sufficient. Furthermore, having such wonderful supervisors such as Mr. Sin Kok Chuen and Mr. Toh Ai Leng has been an advantage as all my doubts has been clarified regarding what I have learnt throughout my years in Ngee Ann Polytechnic.

My attachment starts at 8.30am. I dislike getting up so early in the morning to go to the attachment. It is not that I dislike the attachment. I just dislike having a drag myself out of bed when it is still dark outside and when my eyes refuse to open, especially after having only a few hours sleep because of watching television till late the previous night (my fault!). If only the attachment programme would start a bit later then everything will be fine. (Fat Hope!). Then I would not have to get up so early, I would not have to wait my turn to use the bathroom and best of all I would not have to jerk myself from my warm comfortable bed. (Everybody Now: Heavy sighs!)

The moment I hit the crisp morning air on my way to work, my whole outlook changes. Ah, the cool air is invigorating. Life is wonderful. Work is wonderful with all my newfound friends and family and definitely the surroundings.

Throughout my 13 weeks of attachment to Alexandra Hospital – Biomedical Engineering department as a somewhat Biomedical Engineering Assistant. I have done some basic repair, preventive maintenance and commissioning of medical equipment. Above them all, I found that doing repair is the most challenging as I not only have to analyse the fault but also learn the most important aspect which is decision making because the equipment that I am fixing will be used on patients. I tried as meticulously as I could to repair. With the help of a checklist and service manuals, it really make breakdown services much easier.

In the face of such ordinaries and sameness, what can I do? For the time being I suppose there is nothing much I can do. I cannot just quit and run away from everything. What can I do except maybe to another routine somewhere. When I am older and have more autonomy then I can do something. I realize that routine is the result of doing the same things over and over again. To avoid routine, it is then up to me to do things differently and do different things off and on, just to break the routine. By having more bright spots of happy activity I am confident that I can defeat the numbing effect of routine. Hopefully, the true way to render myself happy is to love our work and find in it our pleasure

When the sun sets, it is time to go home and to do my weekly report and interim report and probably watch television a bit. I struggle through the enormous amount of information that I have to write in my interim report. Sometimes I wonder why young people like me have to work trying to stuff facts and figures into our tired brain just to obtain a good grade. So after an hour or two of intensive mental activity, the television set is a most welcome change. However after a while of being informed of the latest killings in the Middle East, the already tired mind just wants to cal it quits. So off to bed I go, to shut my consciousness from the daily routine for eight hours or so. If I am lucky I might get a lovely dream about doing things that I like to do, but even dreams can become routine, like a video tape that keeps on playing the same scene over and over again.

Regardless all of the above, it’s the spark of wanting to learn and ultimate inspiration of meeting deadline that get me through the week. Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness. I just love my newfound family at Alexandra Hospital Biomedical Engineering Department. Thanks everyone.

- Reflections

First as a gesture of goodwill, I bow to you in respect and admiration for having to send me to Alexandra Hospital for my Industrial Attachment. Owing to this chance, I hope I will stick conscientiously to my “routine” and I am sure I will get through with flying colours for time to come. It had been almost 4 months since I parted from Ngee Ann Polytechnic and went on my own separate path to Alexandra Hospital achieve for my industrial Attachment.

With absolute silence, it has been a month since I started my industrial attachment at Alexandra Hospital. How’s the new term like? I suppose things are different there compared to Alexandra Hospital. Perhaps you are still settling down and adapting to your new environment of juggling your assignments and project. As for me, life here in the Hospital is very hectic. My time is fully occupied in attending to breakdown services, preventive maintenance and commissioning of new equipment but I am coping well. For now I am viewing my attachment life as a continuous learning experience.

Although it been only a few months, I am beginning to miss our polytechnic’s life. Nevertheless, I should move on and carry on with our natural course of our growing up years. My daily life is governed by routine, almost totally. What can one expects in the daily life of an ordinary working adult except routine. Regardless of our race, nationality, status and mother tongue, I am sure all of whom who studied in that project room had either fond or sad memories during our project madness days. Personally I think that due to the fact that we as a team had been through a whole line of pep talk, criticisms and what not from all our former lecturers regarding our projects, it begin to change us holistically and see the world in a different perspective, thus preparing us for our industrial attachment.

Most importantly working here at the Biomedical Engineering Department, I learnt to be more humble and not look down on others who failed. I learnt not to be cocky and proud. I also learnt that I must pick myself up again and strive to do better next time. The most crucial thing is not to indulge in self-pity and shame. Failure is neither pitiful nor shameful. It is just something that happens to all of us one time or another. After falling down there is no way to go except up. Therefore, up, I came and carried on with my life since a completely new metamorphosis awaits me.

Dealing with real life scenarios such as repairing life-saving equipment such as defibrillator and Ventilator is very challenges because this equipment will be use on patients. On top of that, I was the ways on how to handle different people ranging from Healthcare workers to Equipment vendors that deal with preventive maintenance as well as commissioning purposes. With the help of Mr. Toh passed experiences, he told me ways on how to deal with them gracefully and reasons things out if anything that is not within my control. Not only will job be done more efficiently, I could maintain good public relations. So far, all the healthcare workers have been very nice and accepted me with hospitable arms and seldom make things difficult for anybody. On the other hand, dealing with vendor is not an easy task. They tend to be complacence and procrastinate. For now, I am still holding on and able to cope with the stress that goes with it.

Sincerely I salute to all the BME lecturers especially to Mdm Tan and Dr. Raj for having to give me another chance for a second review in order to achieve an A for my final year project. I also like to thank Zulkarnain for having through thick and thin for the past 6 months as my project partner. We had always discuss, study as well as talk on different chapters of life ranging from education to social. We encourage each other along the way. It was a healthy and friendly competition among my closest friends that helped me make a difficult climb to where I am now. In addition, I must consider the vagaries of life, which have the habit of destroying all my hopes and dreams. The truth is, none of us knows for certain what the future will bring. I can only do my best and be willing to face the circumstances courageously and optimistically whatever comes in our way. I always remember to take things in my stride otherwise; I will pay the price for my complacence and procrastination.

For the time being, I think I should learn how to live for today and to understand that I should accept the things beyond my control and not take everything so seriously. Respectively I must hold on courage and hope, and not let doubt discourage you from doing what I aspire to do. When I am around the wards doing my preventive maintenance and seeing all those elderly, I remember that the world needs the sunshine of as many smiles as it can get.

Similarly, I should build bridges instead of walls and keep in mind that without healthcare workers and vendors, my industrial attachment would be nothing and thanks them for everything. Besides seeing my good points, i must acknowledge my weak points and change for the better. In addition, I realized that there is an entire lifetime ahead of me, but precious little time should not be wasted. In spite of having obstacles along the way, I shall work for my goals and know that it can be achieved if I reach for my dreams with ability, determination and belief in order to become a strong, righteous and contributing Muslim. Finally, in the end knowing that life will be good to me if I can do my best to be good with life.

In conclusion, let my life principles - Determined and Disciplined be firmly rooted in my heart. I will continue to propagate this core values in all our future achievement and hope success for my future endeavour. So here, wishing all of whom who read my interim report an advance Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year. I will see you soon, if God willing. Until then, sayonara for now and stay healthy. I leave you with a few words of wisdom from Albert Einstein for you to ponder on, - “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new”

WaR CrImInAl TrIaL Of AdOlF EiChMaNn ScReEnPlAy

2005-11-11T22:42:00.000+08:00

On May 28th, 1960, the name of Adolf Eichmann, unknown until then except to a few specialists in the history of German concentration camps and nazification, suddenly became notorious in the world press

On that date Ben Gurion, President of the Council of State, descended the podium of the Israeli Parliament or better known as Knesset and announced to the Israelite that "the person responsible for the death of six million Jews, and their executioner" had been captured by commandos of the Israeli secret service.

On 11th February 1961, Israel television viewers saw a un- remorseful man sitting in a bulletproof glass booth while witnesses, including many Holocaust survivors, testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps.

As part of Israeli criminal procedure, his trial was presided over by three judges instead of a jury. Gideon Hausner, the Israeli attorney general, personally acted as chief prosecutor.

In Jerusalem, Israel presided by an Israeli tribunal

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
You are being brought forth to this case on charges of surpassed gravity against the Jewish People, crimes against humanity, and war crimes

The disgrace man, Adolf Eichmann turns when judge calls after him. He bows his head in shame

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
Yes, my Lord?

The Judge
Eichmann! You have committed the following offences during your period of the Nazi regime.

(1) Carried out constituting a crime against the Jewish people
(2) During WW2, carried out an act constituting against humanity
(3) During the period of WW2, carried out an act constituting a war crime
All of the above offences committed is liable to the death penalty

Adolf Eichmann remains silent.

The Judge
Aren’t you going to appeal for yourself or just remain silent?
Maria Kusmierczuk looks at Adolf Eichmann as he bows his head in shame. He just stands there foolishly, not knowing what to do.

The Judge
In the name of the law, everybody is entitled to liberty and security. A person shall not be deprived of his liberty save in the following cases and in accordance with the procedure prescribed by law.
So speak now or forever hold your peace.
You could actually give us an account what actually happened?

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
My Lord, I fled from Austria upon hearing Hitler’s death and made my way to Argentina where i lived under the name Ricardo Klement.

Adolf Eichmann just looks ahead.

The Judge
Please continue

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
The Israeli Security Service agents seized me in Buenos Aires, Argentina and took me to Tel Aviv Prison pending on a Israel Tribunal

Adolf Eichmann scans the whole room and realizes that there were two ladies that survived the horrific holocaust. Before he can turn his gaze away, his eyes rest on Maria Kusmierczuk. She smiles maliciously at him. Quickly, Adolf Eichmann turns his head to face the judge.

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
So…Adolf, what actually triggers u to hate the Jews so much that coordinated deportations of Jews from Germany and elsewhere in western, southern, and northern Europe to extermination camps.

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
I am actually in charged of the Gestapo's section for Jewish affairs as well as membership in criminal organizations--the Storm Troopers (SA), Security Service (SD), and Gestapo(Secret Nazi Police Force)

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
(Raises his sardonic eyebrows)

What do you do as someone who is in charge of Gestapo’s section for Jewish affairs?

Adolf looks at the judge questionably.

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
(Puzzling)

Adolf, you seem to have neglected to formulate a response to a question by me so I will just ask it again, what do you do?

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
(Whispering)

I coordinated with Gestapo chief Heinrich Mueller on a plan to expel Jews from Greater Germany to Poland, which set the pattern for future deportations.

Judge hisses, thinking that Adolf Eichmann is still trying to cover up for his action by pretending not to know what he is talking about. Then, once again, Adolf Eichmann notices the same girl looking at him with a smug. Adolf swallows his saliva and turns to the judge.

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
(Apologetically)

Err…My Lord; I don’t think I will be much of help here anyway by telling you my line of work in Nazi Germany. What about if I tell you why the Germans hated the Jews first?

Adolf Eichmann, wanting some privacy, before he continued.
The judge nods his head in agreement and takes a quick glance at Adolf. Adolf on the other hand shivers and fastens his footsteps away from the seal box and disappears

15 minutes has passed…

Adolf appears into the crowd again, Adolf amble to the stand on his own as though he is trying to pinpoint someone, deep inside he himself not too sure of his purpose here.
Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
(Baritone voice)

Adolf. Are you looking for someone in particular har?

Adolf is startled by the attorney sudden approach. When he looks up, the two ladies look at him with penetrating eyes.

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
Urmm…no. Just looking around

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
So Adolf, are u going to tell us why does the Germans hated the Jews so much?

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
(Pause)

Your Honour, can you give me a few minutes so that I could recollect my memories?

The Judge
Sure! Without a doubt, the testimony given at this trial by survivors of the Holocaust, who poured out their hearts as they stood in the witness box, will provide valuable material for research workers and historians, but as far as this Court is concerned, they are to be regarded as by-products of the trial against Adolf Eichmann, a war criminal

Before Adolf Eichmann can say anything, the judge starts calling the survivors to the witness stand to testify against Adolf Eichmann.

Looking at his watch, Adolf starts to have sweaty palm, sweats trickle down his forehead and he begin to feel a little un queasy in the stomach.

The Judge
So… (Looking at the bags Maria’s carrying questionably) are you ready to be on trial?

Maria starts to walk to witness stand. A policeman follows her.

Maria Kusmierczuk (The Holocaust Survivor)
Indeed I am…My Honour

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
Ok, tell us the account of your story so that we will have a clearly picture of what has happened to you in the concentration camp.

Maria Kusmierczuk (The Holocaust Survivor)
(Frustrated)

I was a concentration camp survivor. I bears testament to crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
What do you mean by “crimes against humanity”?

Maria Kusmierczuk (The Holocaust Survivor)
Well…doctors and nurses who worked for the Nazi implemented the killing of physically and mentally Jews of surpassed gravity. The Germans did a mass slaughter of Jews – consisting of men, women and even babies are not spared; the shooting on the brink of the pits; the blood spurting from a mass grave; the loading of Jews into the gas vans; the cremation of bodies there; the transport of Jews into the gas chambers. I shall show the injuries to the court as evidence of my horrific experience.

The Judge
Please call upon a doctor to verify Maria Kusmierczuk’s injuries which she incurs during the holocaust.

Adolf Eichmann looks at Maria Kusmierczuk in disbelief. Adolf Reichmann’s mind spring back to the vivid memories in the concentration camp.

A Medical Specialist (The Doctor)
Your honour, the most remarkable findings in Miss Maria Kusmierczuk case is marked atrophy of the right leg, including thigh, leg, and foot. Would you, please stand up, Miss Maria, and will you gradually turn around? Very slowly turn around. Your honour, you can compare here the two legs, and you notice the marked atrophy. You see the femur of this bone, of this leg, as compared to the other. ...without tendinous insertion. You can see this tendon here, strong tendon is absent on this side. ...show blueish discoloration, including, uh, indicating interference with circulation of the leg, probably due to loss of blood vessels.

The Judge
Goodness, what’s the world coming to? Please tell me this is a nightmare. How could this happen in the light of day and why was it just the German people from which this great evil sprang? Would it have been possible to avert the Holocaust if the Allies had displayed a greater will to assist the Jews? Adolf, what’s your perspective on the following questions?

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
My honour, from my own perspective on why the Germans hated the Jews was due to the treaty of Versailles as well as anti-Semitism sentiment. The treaty of Versailles has brought Germany to the knees, because of this, the Germans blamed the Jews on what has happened. The hyperinflation in 1923 was the result of an international Jewish attempt to destroy Germany. In addition Jews were perceived to be dominating the economy because they made good businessman. Jews are hated fro being capitalist exploiters and for their chosen people mentality. As a result of all these, they are being hated.

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
You did not mind acting as the great transporter to death just because you hated the Jews?

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
I did mind, I minded very much - more than anyone can imagine. In my opinion, to break an oath of loyalty is the worst crime and offence that a man can commit

Gideon Hausner (Attorney General)
Loyalty to a crime greater than the murder of six million Jews, amongst them one and a half million children, is that correct? That’s utterly absurd! Am I right to say that you are just following orders. You believed wholeheartedly in National Socialism ...I believe that, when in doubt, you acted according to the doctrine of the Nazi Party in its most extreme interpretation

Adolf Eichmann (The Accused)
That’s not true. We had a moral duty towards our own people - it was our duty to subjugate this nation which wanted to exterminate ours.

Realizing that he cannot change the judge’s decision, Adolf Eichmann stops his protest.

The Judge
Oh fine! Sometimes, I really don’t know what you are thinking. Well…please await my verdict.

Court adjourned for 10 minutes

The Judge
We acquit the accused of a crime against the Jewish People, by reason of the acts attributed to him in this count of the offences during the period until August 1941. The criminal acts of the accused until that time will be included in the conviction for crimes against humanity and the Jewish people. He has caused grave bodily and mental harm to millions of Jews, with intent to exterminate the Jewish People.

Due to the enormous Evidence of your atrocity during world war 2 as a transporter of death, you shall be hang by your neck before you draw your terminal breath after midnight on June 1, 1962. In addition, your body must be cremated and the ashes spread at sea, beyond Israel's territorial waters, so that no nation would serve as Adolf Eichmann's final resting place.May God have mercy on your soul

ThE CoUcH PoTaTo LiFe

2005-10-15T12:12:00.000+08:00
What’s your favourite thing to do when you have a whole day free, with nothing to do and no need to go out?

Well, mine’s sitting in front of the telly and vegging out. I’ve been this way since…I was maybe, three? I remember coming home from kindergarten, dragging my personal table and chair (my grandmother bought for me when I was a baby) in front of the television, and spending an enjoyable hour or so having lunch with the characters on telly as my companions. My viewing material? A tom & Jerry cartoon video. I found watching and re-watching jerry outsmarts tom absolutely hilarious.

When I was in primary school, I switched my attention to drama serials from Taiwan especially the gong-fu fighting ones. The serial stand out most clearly in my memory is Return of the condor heroes, the period drama starring a very much younger Christopher lee as Yang Guo. Two episodes of the serial would air every weekday’s night, but my brother and I were only allowed to watch the first half because we had to wake up early for school the next day. My parents would record the second half (not every time though) of the show for us to enjoy the next day after school. Then, of course there were the cartoons. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Mask, X-men, Transformers, Flintstones and lots more – these were part of our daily enjoyment.

My secondary school days were filled with American dramas like Beverly Hills 90210 and Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Friends and ER, before I progressed to Asian dramas, and, of course , my present favourite – Japanese dramas especially their love stories.

Why do I like watching telly? My mother thinks it’s an absolute waste of time, but to me, it’s pure enjoyment. There’s nothing like sitting down for a couple of hours and immersing yourself in the lives of some fictional characters, imagining what you would do if you were in their shoes. Though many of the stories are so close that I can usually predict what’s gonna happen next, I still find much joy in indulging myself in their melodrama. It takes me out of the stuff that’s happening in my life and gives me a chance to relax.

But as much as I love my television, there are limited numbers of hours I can spend on it, both when I was in school and right now, because of work. I’m sure you’re in the same boat. Well, all I can say is, even as your exams are around the corner, there’s a light at the end of the tunnel. When the school holidays come around, you’ll be free to indulge yourself in the couch-potato life I yearn to live, while I slogs at Alexandria Hospital to get at least an A grade for my industrial attachment. Bless it be.

BlEsSeD iI He WhO HaS FoUnD HiS WoRk; LeT HiM AsK No OtHeR BlEsSeDnEsS

2005-10-08T01:33:00.000+08:00
1st week (26th Sep 2005 – 30th Sep 2005)
First of all, I would like to raise my glass in a toast to all that has been accomplished on my 1st week of my industrial attachment, and to the learning yet to come. Industrial attachment has helped me to see the world in a different perspective. Without this attachment, my knowledge regarding the outside world is only limited to just theoretical application and doing experiments in our lab is definitely not sufficient. Furthermore, having such wonderful supervisors such as Mr. Sin Kok Chuen and Mr. Toh Ai Leng has been an advantage as all my doubts has been clarified regarding what I have learnt for the 1st week.
My attachment starts at 8.30am. I dislike getting up so early in the morning to go to the attachment. It is not that I dislike the attachment. I just dislike having a drag myself out of bed when it is still dark outside and when my eyes refuse to open, especially after having only a few hours sleep because of watching television till late the previous night (my fault!). If only the attachment programme would start a bit later then everything will be fine. (Fat Hope!). Then I would not have to get up so early, I would not have to wait my turn to use the bathroom and best of all I would not have ton jerk myself from my warm comfortable bed. (Everybody Now: Heavy sighs!)

Day 1: 26th September 2005
The moment I hit the crisp morning air on my way to work, my whole outlook changes. Ah, the cool air is invigorating. Life is wonderful. Hopefully work is wonderful too with all my new found friends and family and definitely the surroundings. On the 1st day of my 6 months attachment to Alexandra Hospital, I reached there at 7.50am on a Monday morning. Upon reaching the main lobby of Alexandra Hospital, I waited at the lobby till 8am because the receptionist is not there for me to ask for direction. At 8am, I asked the receptionist about the location of Biomedical Engineering Department. She told me its on the second level of the main building so I went up via a lift. When I reached level 2 of the main building, there are only clinics J & K and no Biomedical Engineering insight. I heaved a sigh. I went back down to ask the receptionist again. She was sorry for making that error, now she told me that the biomedical engineering department is located at Block 18 which is at the far end of the hospital. Block 18 is actually a bungalow cum office whereby on level 1 it is designated to the biomedical engineering department whereas on level 2, it is dedicated to the hospital planning department. It is still early. Even the door was locked. I waited and waited till 8.20am, suddenly a lady by the name of ester came along. She is actually the assistant manager and in charge of hospital planning. She leads the way so that I could meet Mr. Sin Kok Chuen in person, my supervisor.
I was then brought to the human resource by Nuraini Bte Osman, the secretary to get myself a personalize card as a form of identification as well as documents to be complicated prior to my attachment at Alexandra Hospital. After which, I was given a tour around Alexandra Hospital of the various wards, Clinics and A & E department. Later on, my supervisor, Mr. Sin gave me a short introduction on what’s the role of BME at AH is, what’s need to be done and so on. In addition, he asked me if I am familiar with the various safety standards like IEC 60001 & 60101. I was familiar with the equipment safety standards of IEC 60001 but not that familiar with IEC 60101 which is a safety standard for Laboratory equipment. After which, he even asked me if I knew of the various classes of equipment, since i knew of the various classes of equipment. He did not need to explain any further. He showed the various cupboards where the manuals are being kept, safety procedures if any emergency were to happen, and I was introduced to the senior engineer, Mr. Toh, assistant engineer, Lee Chong. Unfortunately the other assistant engineer, Faz was on leave on that day, thus don’t have the chance to meet her. Mr. Toh gave a work place which consists of a spacious table, a desktop computer and some stationary.
At around 11am, Mr. Sin introduced me to the NIBP (non-invasive blood pressure) which is also known as sphygmomanometer. I personally think that repairing a NIBP is indeed the simplest of all the equipment I repaired during my 1st week at AH. It is mainly made up of a rubber inflation bad double tube, Velcro cuff (in accordance to the size- adult or neonate), plastic manometer tube (300mm or 260mm), catch spring, mercury reservoir, inflation bulb, control bulb, rubber tubing, and washer (cotton or PVC). Adequate blood pressure is essential to maintain the blood supply and function of vital organs. Measurement of blood pressure is therefore a key part of the monitoring of patients.
What I learnt about Mr.Sin is that he likes to give me a short introduction on the equipment, how the equipment works and last of all the safety that needs to come with it. I think it is good practice for my own benefits. Two thumbs up for Mr. Sin. The most common problem of this equipment are mercury can’t be pumped up, there is some air leakage of the rubber inflation bag due to excessive used, the rubber tubing was torn, the 300mm plastic manometer tube’s markings disappeared or the inflation bulb or control spoiled. Applying my knowledge of clinical engineering, firstly I did a visual inspection if there is any thing missing, lost or need to be changed. Next I try to replace the suspected faulty components / worn-out components with good ones that are available in the store. Next, I did a checked on the equipment based on the functionally testing and safety testing.
The functionally testing refers to whether the replacement replaced was good and works well without any hitch. The safety testing refers to that there shouldn’t be any mercury leakage if it was pumped to the maximum. Personally the most crucial components are definitely the PVC and Cotton Washer because the washer helps to prevent any mercury leakage which could be harmful to human health. I did some cleaning too. Throughout this repair, I wore a rubber gloves to prevent any mercury seeping through my skin if it did happened. Thank god, it went smoothly. All in all, I did 3 sphygmomanometer.
Next, I was introduced to the ProFile powered by MEDI-MIZER which is a software to create a database for all the medical equipment for easy maintenance and access if the need be. I learned how to create a work order as well as how to close the work order. Mr. Sin added my name to the database so that I could enter in and key in any work order which I did for the 21 weeks I am there.
I ended the day at around 5.45pm since i had done everything that needed to be done.

Day 2: 27th September 2005
From the life of a normal teenagers, to a weary freaky. I am now donning with shirts, black pants and black shoes. Life as a working adult is tough but I suppose perseverance is everything here. In spite of having obstacles along the way, i work for my goals and know that it can be achieved if i reach for my dreams with ability, determination and belief.
I arrived at 8.10am. i met Faz for the first time. We had a good chat. For today, Mr. Sin showed us Donway Traction splinting system. It is used in the A & E department for patients with leg injuries such as fractures, torn ligaments and stuffs. It is actually easy equipment to work with. The Donway Traction Splinting system does belong to the BME thus there isn’t any need to key it in to our database. We only need to do some preventive maintenance and order a few missing parts. After Mr. Sin explained to us (Faz, Lee Chong & Me) about what it is used for and how does the mechanism works. I was given a task to do the preventive maintenance for 4 of this orthopedics equipment under the watchful eyes of lee Chong, the assistant engineer.
Firstly, I did a routine maintenance programme as suggested by Mr. Sin which consists of visual inspection, Lubrication of pneumatic seals, Relief valve test and standard pressure test for each of the equipment. I found out that only 2 out of th2 4 tractions splinting system works. The other 2 fails due to some problem of the meter. Since we don’t have any spare parts for this equipment, Lee Chong suggested that we leave it aside while waiting for the spare parts to come which come from Australia Biomedical Corporation Limited.
Since there are only 2 Traction splinting system that works, I did maintenance and repair procedures such as re-lubrication of pneumatic seals, replacement of pneumatic seals, re-assemble of side arm to mainframe and replacement of traction gauge mounting adaptor.
Next, I opened up a work order for the equipment (NIBP) that I did yesterday. I key in the various steps such as Diagnosed, replaced, checked and cleaning. The time spent for each of the steps is noted too. For the replacement procedures, I need to key in the parts used for the replacement so that the inventory will know how many parts are left and when to do order new parts if the parts are depleted. After all that, I needed to close the work order which certified that the job has been completed and that the complaints have solved.
In the afternoon, new equipment came to BME for a breakdown service. It is the alternate mattress pump or in lay man term it is called as an anti-sores mattress pump and the mattress. It used to relieve sores on patients who are immobile and can’t move much, thus this pump and mattress eases their sore pains. Mr. Sin showed me how does it works and the complication that comes with it. He even drew a flow chart so that I could have a better view on how it works. He told me that the pump works with 230V, thus if I wanted to open the casing up. Preferably, switch off the power supply first of all.
After that introduction, the time shown is 5.30pm, thus he told me to continue it tomorrow. I ended the busy day at around 5.50pm.

Day 3: 28th September 2005
For today, I tried to repair the alternating mattress pump. After the visual inspection and functional check of the circuit and the rubber tubes inside, I found out there isn’t any problem with it. However, since I am not too sure whether the internal circuitry is correct, I tried to find the manual for this. Unfortunately, the manual was no where to be found.
I consulted the senior engineer regarding this. He told me to try to check the internal tubing if there is any torn parts or disconnection inside. Once again, I found out nothing. It is in perfect conditions. I took it upon myself to check for any holes in the mattress. As suggested by Mr. Sin, I should used soapy water on the mattress, if there are any bubbles then the leakage is there. Thinking that it will be very difficult to do the procedure all by myself and seeing the lack of spaces to do this steps. I decided to think outside the box. I used a one connecter pump instead of two, I pump up into one of the hole and let it pumps for just one alternate side of the mattress. I checked meticulously for any holes. After a few minutes of checking, I found out that there are 2 holes. I did a small patch up using the same material from the store room.
After doing so, I connect the pumps to the mattress and it works fantastically. I even tried to lie on it to see how it feels like. I keyed in the components and what I did to rectify the problem. Next, I closed the work order. Paste a sticker on it; write the Work Order Number and the ward no. that it needs to be sent to. Then it’s all done. (Good Job!)
After lunch time, Mr. Sin passed me a few documents pertaining to the theoretical parts of a Pulse Oximetry. After reading, I found out that a range of 96% to 100% of Oxygen is generally considered normal. Anything below 90% could be life-threatening. Pulse Oximeter works on the principle of the red and infrared light absorption character and deoxygenated hemoglobin. Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light and passes through. Deoxygenated (or reduced) hemoglobin absorbs more red light and allow passing through. Red light is in the 600-750 nm wavelength light band. Infrared light is in the wavelength light band.
The inaccuracy of measurement of the pulse Oximetry could be result of motion artifact, ambient light, dried blood, nail polish, intravenous dyes, abnormal hemoglobins, carbon dioxide and hypercarnia.
I did ask Mr. Sin for any Pulse Oximetry around in the BME Centre, so that I could have a hands-on on the equipment instead of theoretical applications. Maybe I could even try it on myself. Unfortunately, there isn’t any around. He said rest assured that he will show me if any of pulse Oximetry are being brought to the BME Centre for breakdown service or Preventive Maintenance (PM).
I finished my day at around 5.50pm.

Day 4: 29th September 2005
That morning, Faz showed me how to diagnosed, replaced and calibrate the flowmeter. Before I did the actual stuffs, I tried to scout around in one of cupboards for the manual for the flowmeter for easy understanding and greater appreciation for flowmeter. I tried to mingle around with the flowmeter and if I did not understand any parts of the manual, all I need is to ask Faz for help. The flowmeters are from IDS Medical Systems.
I found out that the flowmeters are in bad conditions. The marking on it are gone and the bolt and nuts are not that tighten anymore due to the lost of threads. I suggested to Faz to change the flowmeter. She said yes so I did change all the flowmeter to brand new ones. Once again, the routine of closing the work order and updating what components I used for replacement are stated clearly. Then I Paste a sticker on it; write the Work Order Number and the ward no. that it needs to be sent to. Then it’s all done.
Before Lunch time, all the BME department staffs are needed to attend to a safety and terrorism prevention talk conducted by Queenstown Police Post to educate us on what to do if there is any emergency happening within Alexandra Hospital compound. Luckily it was a short and sweet presentation. After that, I went for lunch.
At around 1.05pm, Lee Chong introduced me to the Terumo infusion pump, Model STC_503. He told me repairing infusion pump is the most routine job in the BME Centre and can be quite tedious due to steps taken. Since the month of October is just around the corner, Preventive Maintenance (PM) for infusion pump is on top of their list. There are lots of infusion pumps in the wards, SICU, MICU and lots more (can’t remember where).
Before he introduces me the infusion pump on how to go about doing the Preventive Maintenance (PM), I always make it a habit to find the manual first and take a look at it before having to do the hands-on so that I could understands what he is talking about. First of all, visual inspections are taken to look for any missing parts, loosen bolt, nuts or even screws. Next, we check if all the LED lights up, the buzzer functions accordingly and does the mechanisms work wonderfully?
Subsequently, he showed me how to run the infusion pump using the infusion analyzer IDA-4 which looks like a machine that hooks with a dripper. We started of with the volume tester. We changed the specification in accordance to manual which is at the rate of 300ml/hr and a limit of 100 for 20 minutes. After that, the volume should be around 98-102ml. if it does not meet the specification, then we need to adjust the “S1” in accordance to the discrepancy amount. Next, the check of Occlusion, the range should be around 10-17.1 psi. After that, we need to test for electrical leakage using the electrical safety analyzer. Charged it up.
I ended the day at around 5.40pm

Day 5: 30th September 2005
I continued doing the Preventive Maintenance for Terumo Infusion pump. From what I have learned yesterday for the Infusion Pump, I applied the knowledge to the other 2 remaining infusion pumps. I did the visual inspection, Volume testing, Occlusion Testing, Electrical Testing and charged it up.
From the manual, it states that the most common problem with infusion is flow rate not accurate; pump could not charged up, Occlusion is not adjusted to the ideal value between 10-17.1 psi and Air-in-Line. After doing the Preventive Maintenance, I charged up all 3 infusion pumps for 10 hours to see if it works after the charging. (I will check it again on Monday).
Lee Chong, Faz and Me went to the various wards, Clinics and other departments to return to medical equipment after their breakdown service or Preventive Maintenance for last week of September. Using a palm Top as a medium, Signature are needed as a mean of justification that the equipment have been returned to their owners. After all the equipment had returned to their rightful owner, back at the BME Centre, Faz taught me how to transfer the signatures to a file so that it could trace back if any departments called saying that we have not returned their equipment.
From 12-1pm, I went for lunch. Then I went to the Hang Jebat Mosque which is located not far from Alexandra Hospital. Before I went to the Mosque, I did ask the senior Engineer first because my Supervisor cum Boss of the BME Centre was on leave on that day.
Upon Returning at around 1.45pm, I received a few more faulty Alternating Mattress Pump that need to be repaired. So I attended to it as soon as possible. Approximately around 2.15pm, Mr. Toh asked me to return the power cord to the A&E department and get back the optomoscope power cord. A optomoscope is a device whereby it is used to look into the ears. So I went alone. Upon reaching the A&E department, I returned the power cord and get back the optomoscope power cord. However, one of the staff nurse asked me whether I had returned the correct physiologic monitor earlier. So I checked, indeed it is the correct ones. Since the preventive Maintenance sticker have been changed, thus the serial number has been changed as well, thus create the confusion. I assure the nurse that the physiologic monitor is correct.
When I returned to the BME Centre, I continued to repair the Alternating Mattress pump. I did change the base of the alternating mattress pump because of some breakage found. I changed all the screws too because they are all rusty and their threads almost disappear.
At around 5.30pm, a stethoscope arrived for a service. However, I shall continue repairing the stethoscope on Monday since it is late. Everyone seems to have return home because usually Friday we are entitled to return 30 minutes earlier.
I left the building at around 5.40pm.

In Conclusion for Week 1
Regardless all of the above, it’s the spark of wanting to learn and ultimate inspiration of meeting deadline that get me through the week. Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness.

FiNaL YeAr PrOjEcT MaDnEsS

2005-09-08T15:53:00.000+08:00
It’s been a whirlwind couple of months for me. I’ve been working non-stops for my final year project entitled Study of the plantar pressure distribution of Non-Diabetic subjects and Type II Diabetic subjects with and without neuropathy, and…I’ve done it.

Finally, this hurricane of deadlines and more deadlines are over, and I am back for my normal schedule of routine.

This makes me think about relaxation, and how different people choose to relax.

Television Therapy
All I want to do after a day at school is to sit in front of the telly and space out. Yes, I’m a couch potato. I’m the kind of person who can finish a whole Japanese drama serial in one weekend-serial there less than 20 episodes, of course. My brain shuts down as I sit in front of the goggle box, and nothing can get me off my comfy beanbag at home – other than my tummy! Heh heh.

Sleep Therapy
when I’m really tired, and my brain feels like it’s going on strike…that’s when I know that I need sleep. Oh, and the panda eye bags are also probably a telling sign of lack of sleep too. This type of therapy works best on weekends. When I get to sleep in late on Saturdays, wake up to have lunch, and go back to sleep again. Heh.

On boy, after cracking my brain to think of ways to relax. I think I’m heading off to see the telly for some good television therapy. So until the next entry…

Got to relax, have fun and enjoy myself. Especially during my one week study break…

ThE PrOpHeT MuHaMmAd’s (S.A.W) LaSt SeRmOn

2005-09-07T22:40:00.000+08:00

This sermon was delivered on the ninth day of Dhul Hijjah 10 A.H.
In the Uranah valley of Mount Arafat

“O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether, after this year, I shall ever be amongst you again. Therefore listen to what I am saying to you carefully and TAKE THESE WORDS TO THOSE WHO COULD NOT BE PRESENT HERE TODAY.

O People, just as you regard this month, this day, this city as scared, so regard the life and property of every Muslim as sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one can hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your LORD, and that HE will indeed reckon your deeds. ALLAH has forbidden you to take usury (Interest), therefore all interest obligation shall henceforth be waived…

Beware of Satan, for the safety of you religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small thing.

O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. If they abide by your right then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Do treat your women well and be kind to them for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with anyone of whom you do not approve, as well as never to commit adultery.

O People, listen to me in earnest, worship ALLAH, says your five daily prayers (solat), fast during the month of Ramadhan, and give your wealth in zakat. Perform Haji if you can afford to. You know that every Muslim is the brother of another Muslim. You are all equal. Nobody has superiority over other except by piety and good action.

Remember, one day you will appear before ALLAH and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone.

O People, NO PROPHET OR APOSTLE WILL COME AFTER ME AND NO NEW FAITH WILL BE BORN. Reasons will, therefore, O people, and understand my words which I convey to you. I leave behind two things, the Al-QURAN and my example the SUNNAH and if you follow these you will never go astray.

All those who listen to me shall pass my words to others and those others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to my directly. Be witness O ALLAH, that I have conveyed your message to your people”

HaS My EdUcAtIoN BeEn A WoRtHwHiLe ExPeRiEnCe?

2005-05-22T22:10:00.000+08:00
I am now in the last lap of my school life. At the end of next year I will be a soldier…a fucking patriotic soldier. Ok enough with that son of a soil thingy back to my education. If I do well I might get a chance to prolong my school education by 4 or 3 years in a local university and beyond. If I do not perform well enough I probably will have to go to a foreign university or start working. Whatever it is, I have to admit that I am on the verge of adulthood and soon I will have to make my own way through life. The question now is has the past years in school been worthwhile. How has it helped me prepare for my adult life?

Since “education” is too general to consider in all its aspects, I shall consider it only in terms of its role in school.

As school is a place where many people of diverse culture, race, religion and most important of all attitudes converge onto. The first things I learned in primary school were that they are so many different kinds of people. I experienced the pains and pleasures of getting to know my schoolmates or rather my classmates. I discovered my own strength and weakness and the social roles each of us played. I learned the meaning of tolerance, team-work, friendship as well as prejudice, selfishness and enmity. Some experiences were uplifting while some were depressing. However, when taken as a whole these experiences taught me how to handle life without getting into too much trouble. I have to cope with them. By mixing and socializing in school I learned to fit into society and live according to its norms. Without this school experience I doubt very much whether I can be a successful social animal. I would not know what to do and worst of all I would not have friends to help me in times of need.

Undeniably school taught me the basic skills of writing, reading and arithmetic without which it would be very difficult to live in this modern world. It also taught me many other things like geography, history and science. In geography I learned that there are other countries with different people living in them, speaking different languages and doing different things. I also learned about our planet earth and our place in the solar system. History taught me about people who lived before, their hopes, their dreams, their successes and their failures. It also taught me that the human race had been at war with one another since time immemorial, and that we seldom learn our lessons from the misdeeds of the past. Our progress in science taught me the enormous capability of man and how much he can achieve if he sets his mind to as task. All this knowledge remains with me and definitely they will determine how my later life will proceed, for they have moulded my character and attitude.

Sports, games and extra-curricular activities showed me that we can involve ourselves in so many different kinds of activities. I realized that most people are competitive. Very few are not. Aggressive ones normally dominate in sports and games while the quieter ones normally spend their time in less vigorous pursuits like reading and visiting the library. Unfortunately, I am not able to strike a healthy balance between two extremes. I am fairly good in some sports and games only. However, doing well in one’s studies is of primary importance and it is here that the competition is the fiercest. I learned not to underestimate others, especially the ******. He/she is the one who is going to knock all of us flat when the final results come out.

In the process of growing up in the school environment, I discovered that teachers are also human. They err and sometimes behave terribly. When I was in primary school, the picture was different. A teacher was something like superman, a know-all and a much feared and respected figure. Now I see that they like anyone of us, except they were born earlier and have a little bit more experience. That does not mean I have lost respect for them. It only means that I do not believe everything they say blindly. I have learned to reason and discriminate.

Summing up, I would say that my education had been worthwhile. I may not be the ideal student that would make an educationist happy but I know I am not a washout either. In my heart I know that the experiences in school were priceless. What I am today is the direct result of my education. The very fact that I can express my views on paper or for this case in my blog as I am doing now should vouch for the worth of my education

I CaN PuT Up WiTh AlOt Of ThInGs In ThIs BlOg BuT LyInG IsN't OnE Of ThEm.

2005-04-12T01:23:00.000+08:00
To all the readers out there,

By sending me an email, you acknowledge that I own all rights to the entire contents of your message as well as any attachments sent with it. I made my email address publicly available to everyone and everywhere because I hope you could give constructive comments on any of my entry that I wrote. But I think it is time for you people out there to realize that giving slanderous comments, taking libel actions, or judge anyone or anything by your own self-serving standards in any way, shape of form is apparently dulled. isn't that a little immature? I cursed him/her and let him/her rot in the normalness of his/her ignorant mind. obviously nothing I say is going to make you see how wrong you are, and how flawed your points are that you're trying to cross to me. Once again, emailing me will get you no-where, especially if it’s abuse. If it’s abuse when I go to read it, I assure you that you won`t have a happy time when I’m back for my next entry.

I really think you people should behave. You make me think of you poorly!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

ReAlItY ChEcK: I Am GoInG To Be 20 YeArS OlD SoOn…VeRy SoOn !

2005-04-02T02:20:00.000+08:00
I was once an archetype of the perpetually hungry kid who was noisy and dirty and with the inborn ability to drive my parents “up the wall” as they say. With my next door friends of about the same age we would run wild around the neighbourhood , catching spiders, cycling, playing catching, disturbing people and on the whole enjoying ourselves tremendously. Those were the days where I was a “damn nuisance” to everyone older than us.

The years seem to have passed very quickly. I am now pushing twenty and on the verge of leaving NgeeAnn Polytechnic. I really wonder sometimes how did I grew up so fast. It would be just wonderful to remain kids forever, like peter pan and his friends, but then again it may not be such a good idea after all.

Anyway the reality is that I am no longer a teenager. When I think back and compare when I was then with what I am now I can see vast differences, much like that a tadpole and a frog.

The first thing I noticed is that I no longer have the energy to run continuously. In those younger days we did not walk. I ran, jumped and skipped all over the place. I had boundless energy and never knew what tiredness meant. Now I hardly ever run or rather can’t run, unless it is on the school field when I have to run or face the wrath of the P.E teacher during “TAF Training” during my yester years. Even then it is always more a fast walk then a proper run, much to the teacher indignation. I can never understand how I have become so unwilling to run. Maybe it is because I have used up my quota of running when I am a young kid. Anyway my parents will never catch me running for the fun of it. All those middle-age joggers I see puffing like puffer fishes and groaning on the road look more like jokers to me. I prefers the slow mode of moving. I think some of my friends share the same feeling too. Am I right?

Noise and dirt have been replaced by music and neatness. I admit I was once screaming little clouds of dirt that messed up and deafened everyone I met. Now I do not mess up anyone. Some of my friends are definitely very cleans but some are just plain stinkoid. This is the time when fashion and style seem very important. How can I looks good in our clothes if we remain dirty? Ah, I even wash our hands before and after meals like a Muslim would do. I am sure each of my friends brushes his teeth everyday. Otherwise he would not remain a friend for very long.

God bless those who invented the portable MP3 player. Now I can listen to my favourite songs without disturbing anyone else. Gone are the times when we have to run the volume down on the hi-fi set because my parents got mad at the too-loud music. With the earphones covering our ears now, we disturb no one and no one disturbs me.

Physically too, I have changed tremendously. I would say on the average, I am twice the size when I once was at ten. I also discovered we can no longer sing those children songs, firstly because I feel a bit embarrassed to sing them and mostly because I cannot sing in the key that I once sang in. a lion cannot squeak like a mouse. That is the difference in my voice. The once angelic voice of a child had turn into the growl of an adolescent boy.

Mentally I have obviously changed. I can no longer play the games I used to play with the girls of our age. When I was young it made no difference whether our playmates were boys or girls. Now it makes a tremendous change. I am so conscious of our sex differences. I only play among members of my own sex. The girls prefer to indulge in softer games on their own. We boys are more robust. I also detect a very great tendency for me to show off wherever there are girls around. I do not really know why, but I definitely play harder when the girls are watching.

Soon I will leave school to make way in the real world of adults. I would definitely change some more. I suppose things will get more serious and I will have less and less time to play. Physical activity will take a back seat except for those fitness freaks. Run? I think I will just sit down and watch teenagers do it.

EeNiE, MeEnIe, MiNiE, Mo !!

2005-03-15T23:36:00.000+08:00
No confidante, can’t trust my friends, can’t tell my family members or there’s simple no one to pour my feelings. Well, that’s the reason why I would like to say it all to my ever loving diary, my almost childlike idealistic bullshit manifesto. She may not be able to offer any advice but she’s all ears to my weal and woes. thank you diary...Wo Ai ni !!

Life’s really like a living hell for me, and I really can’t take it anymore. I feel trapped and suffocated, just like a bird in a cage. Stress…stress…and more stress. It’s that time again, yap…time to hit the books! To make my entry simpler to read, I have decided to put it in MCQ formats. So it is just eenie, meenie, minie, mo which choice is the best of them all?
Does this sound familiar when you can’t decide? Do you people do that when it comes to answering MCQ questions in tests and exams? Hey, in this entry. I shall drop little cues here and there. It’s something personal…

Instructions to candidates
- This MCQ questions consists of 6 Questions. you can select the answer of your choice simply by ticking on to it but in my case i will just make it bold.
- All data will be handled confidential; nothing will be used for other purposes than this blog. none of it is linked to you personally, in any other way.
- I am trying to gain a pulse by gearing you people out there with a checklist to revamp yourself to help you get started before the tests, final tests and exams.
- Time allocated: 15 minutes.
1) Do I like exams?
A) YES
B) NO
Afiq -> I don’t like exam but I like the “after-exam” period
2) Do I study hard?
A) I think so.
B) Nah, there isn’t such a need
Afiq -> I guess I’m no genius. If I want reasonably good grades, there are really no short cuts. But then again, I’m someone who loves to procrastinate and someone who needs to enjoy so I try to balance between study and play.
3) Do I study late into the night before exams?
A) Yes
B) No
Afiq -> Well sometimes I do it but not always…so the answer is No. A clear mind is really important before exams. Sleep well…err…don’t oversleep though.
4) What about revising before the exams?
A) A must-do
B) Who cares?
Afiq -> Not sure if you feel the same, but revising helps me to feel more confident about tackling the papers. A forgetful fellow like me will need to refresh what’s learnt. No time to revise? Hey, at least read through the important ones once…hehe!
5) Do I worry about my course mates studying more or performing better than me?
A) Yes
B) No
C) Yes & No
Afiq -> Hmm…honestly, I’m guilty of that once. But I realized that’s really a foolish behavior (you don’t have to agree with me because it’s purely my thinking). Besides, I should be more concerned about whether I’ve tried my best and give all out for it. Reality check: C’mon, how many course mates perform isn’t going to change my grades.
6) Is that all I want to say?
A) Yeah, that’s all
B) Wait, I haven’t finished
Afiq -> Well, certainly that’s not all. Let doubt discourage you from doing what you aspire to do. most importantly, you shoudn’t compare yourself to others-they are more screwed than you think.
Score: 6/6 (Hee...Perfect Score!)
I leave you with a few words of wisdom in Chinese proverb for you to ponder;
To become an able man in any profession, three things are necessary=Nature, Study and Practice
The MCQ questions has finished. Now you can submit the Test. Thank you for your time.

TeMpTiNg ReCiPe FoR A SuCcEsSfUl LiFe

2005-03-08T22:45:00.000+08:00
Ingredient
1 cup of consideration
1 cup of courtesy
1 cup of contentment
A generous dash of cooperation
2 cups of creativity
2 cups of charity
2 cups of compliment
1 gallon of faith in god and other people
1 cup of encouragement
1 cup of blindness to other’s fault
1 large or several small hobbies
1 reasonable budget
3 teaspoons of “I Am Sorry”
1 pinch of in-laws (optional)

Method
Flavour with frequent portions of recreation and a dash of happy memory. Stir well, and remove all specks of cynicism, criticism, condemnation, jealousy and temper. Sweeten well with generous portions of love and human kindness. Keep warm with a steady flame of devotion and commitment. Never serve with a cold shoulder or hot tongue.

Acknowledgement
By women’s inspiration
University women’s association student (UWAS)